This article is written for tourists as a glance on essential history of India till 1200 AD before they plan to visit Indian ancient monuments, remains, caves and museums.
In my earlier article I mentioned about lineage of kingdoms and the ancient places of BC Era. There are still a few monuments left out on earth of India where we can visit and pay our tribute to those mighty kingdoms which were our past and who laid the foundation of philosophy, religion, knowledge to generations ahead.
Few examples- In BC Era Harappa civilizations gave the town planning, Vedic period gave us foundation of knowledge and culture in form of Vedic culture, idea of Republic to world born in Vaishali, Vedic culture got replaced with Buddhism for few centuries, Chola and Chera affluence and trading with Romans and Chinese, concept of greater India, non violence, tolerance evolved from Ashoka The Great.
In AD era, Naga dynasty created shaped Gods in sculptures like Shiva, Kushans replaced Heenyana cult to Mahayana where Buddha was worshipped as God and “eight fold” was less prioritized. Idols of Buddha erected by Kushanas who completely indigenized themselves, revived Sanskrit. Gupta dynasty again established Hinduism at its peak. Art, administration followed a new dimensions in form of Nalanda university, Schools of art, new temples, cave sculpture, marvel of Ajanta paintings, Kailasha temple in Ellora, Brihdeshwara temple and so on so forth.
Added below are some monuments which are still in use and belong to kingdoms from 1AD-1200 AD.
Let us have a look at 35 most visited, prominent and well maintained forts in India. These forts transferred, renovated and modified from one dynasty to other with course of time.
Kushan Dynasty
Greeko-Romans were the first invaders to India. Kushans were the second into India and completely adopted to Indian culture, followed Hindu Gods (Shiva), Buddhism, preached Buddhism and worked for further development and promulgation of Sanskrit in their literature.
Period – 15 AD – 230 AD
Founder – Kadphises I
Origin – Yu-Chi tribe from China borderline
Prominent kings – Kadphises I, Kadphises II, Kanashika I
Religion – No religion, adopted Hinduism, Buddhism and were secular
Fall – Malwa, Youdheya, Kunind branch of Naga dynasty and weakened kings.
Monuments – Qila Mubarak in Bhatinda, Rabatak in Afghanistan, sculptures, coins in Mathura museum, Sarnath Museum
Kanishka I started Saka Samvat era as 78AD on day of his enthronement. Kadphises II is said to have adopted Hinduism and Kanishka I followed Buddhism. He preached Buddhism in Asia, built monasteries and helped the monks financially. He sent preachers to Japan, Tibet, China and central Asia. Earlier Pali was used in Buddhism literature but Kanishka stated use of Sanskrit. He also replaced Heenyaan with Mahayaan and now in stead of “eight fold path” more emphasis was on idol worship. He also conducted 4th Buddhist conference. From the time of Buddha in the 6th century BCE, Prakrit had become dominant, but it was Ashwaghosha who composed two works – Buddhacharita and Saundar Ananda, in Sanskrit during his time. Kushanas issued a remarkable series of coins which depict the king on the obverse and a deity on the reverse.
Naga Dynasty
Though not covered in school text books but there were the first people to follow Vedic culture, create the Gods in form of idols (Shiva, serpents) and they paved the foundation stone of Hinduism further followed by Gupta empire and Vakatakas and Satvahanas.
Period – 110 BC- 78 AD
Founder – Bharshiva (Padmavati branch)
Origin – After Kushanas weakened Nagas rose. There were like confederation and some branches were monarchy and some were republic.
Prominent kings – Padmavati (Pavaya in MP), Mathura, Kantipur, Eron (Bina in MP), Champavati (Bhagalpur), Kunind (Punjab), Buland shahar, Vidisha, Ujjain were the branches run by different Naga kings.
Religion – Hindu
Fall – Gupta empire
Monuments -Mandore Fort, Nagaur fort
Ruled in parts of north central India after the fall of Kushanas and before the rise of Gupta Empire.
Naga coins have been discovered at all places where they ruled. The Nagas ruled at 3 different places like Padmavati current name Pavaya in MP, Kantipuri, distt Gwalior and Mathura, Eran, distt. Bina. It is not confirm if these coins were of same Naga clan umbrella or not.
The Nagas can be credited to make the foothold of Hinduism strong at the time when Buddhism was spreading its root. They were Shaivas and one of the foremost kings to bring the cult of Hindu Gods in form of sculptures. They set the footings of Hinduism in future Gupta Empire and Vakatakas. If they were not there Gupta empire would not exist. They did everything to revive Vedic culture which Gupta empire carried and got strong footing. The proofs of Naga dynasty are inferred from Vayu purana, coins, inscriptions, Allahabad pillar.
Satvahana Dynasty
Period – 75 BC-225 AD
Founder – Simuka is mentioned as the first king inscription at Naneghat 120 km from Pune.
Origin – Uncertain. As per Puranas they overthrew Kanva dynasty by Simuka
Prominent kings – Simuka (100-70 BC), Kanha, Satakarni I, Satakarni II (50-25 BC), Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vasishthiputra Pulumavi IV
Religion – Hindu but supported Buddhism also.
Kingdom – Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra. Sometimes parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka.
Fall – By 225 AD there was rise of its feudatories, perhaps due to weak central power. After the death of Pulumavi IV, the Satavahana empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms such as Satvahanas, Abhira dynasty, Andhra Ivakshu, Banavasi and Pallavas.
Monuments -There are four kinds of Buddhist Monuments during the period of Satavahanas. They are Viharas, Sangharamas, Stupas and Chaityas. Contributed gates at Sanchi Stupas, repaired under King Satakarni II. Pulumavi IV, the last king of the main line constructed Buddhist monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati.
Nasik Caves, Patan Cave and Bhaja Caves. Karla cave are during Satvahanas. Ajanta caves were constructed in two phases earliest 5 were excavated in Satvahana time while other 23 during Vakatakas period (Evidence inscriptions). Ajanta cave – 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A (230-220 AD) are by Satvahanas.
Gupta Dynasty
They revived the Hindu culture founded by Nagas and first to unite divided India region under flag of one great empire.
Period – 240 AD- 550 AD
Founder – Srigupta
Origin – Some historians say they were Jats. Some are of opinion they were from Malda or Murshidabad from Bengal. Before Srieegupta founded Gupta empire there was a small Gupta kingdom in Ayodhya region. It is also thought they originated from there.
Prominent kings – Srigupta (240- 280 AD), Ghatotkacha, Chandragupta I (319 – 350 AD), Samudragupta (350 – 375 AD), Chandragupta II (380 – 415 AD), Skandagupta (455 – 467).
Religion – Hindu
Fall – Pushyamitras, Hunas, Yeshodharman of Malwa, Revolt in Maukhari and Maitrakas.
Monuments – Vishnu Temple of Tigwa in Katni, Eran in Sagar, Shiva temple of Bhumra in Satna district, Parvati Temple of Nachna near Panna are all in MP state. Temple of Bheetargaanv in Kanpur district of UP state.
Gupta dynasty is credited with revival of Hindu culture. They gave protection to literarians. Though Kalidasa period is not exactly known but he is said to be in Gupta rule. Kalidasa composed Meghdootam, Abhigyan Shakuntalam, Kumar Sambhav, Raghuvansh. Bhas wrote Swapn Vasavdatta, Shudrak wrote Mrachhkatika, Vishakadatt Mudrarakshas, Bhatti Ravana vadh, Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra, Smritis were written in Gupta time and Puranans were updated.
Vakataka Dynasty
Their immense contribution to art was in form of Ajanta caves which is UNESCO World Heritage.
Period – 3rd Century AD- 480 AD
Founder – Vindhya Shakti I
Origin – Their place of origin is not known but they came from South of India.
Prominent kings – Vidarbh branch – Vindhya Shakti I, Pravarsen, Rudrasen I, Prithvisen, Rudrasen II. Akola Branch – Sarvsen, Vindhya Shakti II, Harisen (last king).
Religion – Hindu
Fall – As per immortal work “Daskumar Charita” written after 126 years after Harisena the fall of Vakatakas was due to Harisena’s son who led a vicious and dissolute life. Taking advantage Vanvasi king invaded and killed Harisena’s son. This ended Vakataka dynasty. Weakened due to rise of Kalchuris and Kadamba.
Monuments – All the monuments of Ajanta (excluding caves nos. 9,10,12,13 and 15A) were built in Harisena time. Ajanta caves 16, 17 and 19 and are one of the best of its time are of this age. 1–8, 11, 14–29 built in short time of 460 AD-480 AD. Pachtantra is believed to be composed in Vakataka period.
Vakatakas were contemporary of Gupta dynasty. They replaced the Satavahanas and called them Haritiputras, belonging to Hariti clan. Founder was Vindhyashakti who is illustrated in one of the inscriptions of Ajanta cave. But actual founder was Pavansena who had marital relations with Bharshiva of then powerful dynasty of Naga kings. Sarvasen wrote “Harivijay” in Prakrit language which is based on Satyabhama and Parijat episode of Mahabharata. Gatha Saptshati, Setubandh was composed by Sarvasen. They carried the Hindu rituals adopted from Nagas.
Maitrak Dynasty
Period – 475 AD- 767 AD
Founder – Bhatarka, a military governor of Saurashtra under Gupta Empire.
Origin – On fall of Gupta Empire
Prominent kings – Dharsen I, Dhruvsen I, Guhasen, Dhruvsen II, Shiladitya III
Religion – Buddhism
Fall – During Shiladitya reign Arab tribes attacked Maitraka in 725-735 AD. Maitrakas drove them off with help of Chalukyas. Rise of Chalukya, Pratihars and Rashtrakuta was the cause of fall of Maitrakas. Gurjars defeated them with help of Chalukyas.
Monuments – Vallabhi was center of learning for entire Asia and had the status of Nalanda .
Maukhari Dynasty
Period – 550 AD- 606 AD
Founder – Isanavarman
Origin – Feudatories of the late Guptas
Prominent kings – Harivarman, Adityavarman, Grahvarman
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom – Most of Uttar Pradesh and Magadha.
Fall – Conquered by later Guptas.
Monuments – Popular game of chess then called Chaturanga, meaning ‘army’ originated. in Maukhari dynasty.
Their one of the kings Grahvarman had married Rajshree, sister of Harsha Vardhana. Kannauj (Kanyakubj), the Maukhari capital was so developed by Maukhari that it even became the capital of Harsha. It was famous for perfume production. This city was contested among Pala, Rashtrakuta and Gurjara-Pratihara Empire.
Pushyabhuti (Vardhana Empire)
The characteristic of Vardhana period was that it worked on imperial Gupta pattern but became more feudal in nature and more decentralized. Nobles and generals had a say in administrative matters and king had to listen them.
Period – 500 AD – 647 AD
Founder – Not certain. As per Harscharita Pushyabhuti of Thanesar (probably mythical) was founder.
Origin – They were feudatory of Maukhari till Prabhakar Vardhana. Prominent kings – Pushyabhuti (legendary), Nar Vardhana, Rajya Vardhana I, Prabhakar Vardhana (550-585), Rajya Vardhana II, Harsh Vardhana
Religion – Hindu (Shaiva) and then converted to Buddhism. Kingdom – North and North-Western India, and extended till Kamarupa (Assam) in the east and Narmada River in the South.
Monuments -Harsha is widely believed to be the author of three Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika. Poet Bana Bhatt flourished in his court.
Fall – Harsh Vardhana was heirless. The kingdom eventually captured by Gurjar-Pratihar king Nagabhatta-II.
Kalchuri Kingdom
Remembered today due to earliest of the Ellora and Elephanta cave monuments.
Period – 6th-7th century AD and then 11-12 century AD
Founder – Unknown
Origin – The origin is uncertain. Mythical story exists.
Prominent kings – Only three kings are known Krishnaraja (550-575 AD), Shankaragana, Buddharaja (600-625 AD).
Religion – Early Kalchuri were Jain
Kingdom – Between Narmada and Godavari
Fall – Western Chalukya king Manglesh in 12th century
Monuments – Earliest of the Ellora and Elephanta cave monuments were built during the Kalachuri rule.
Early Kalchuri capital was Mahishmati (Maheshwar in MP) in 6th to 7th century. They were defeated by Chalukya of Vatapi and remained obscure for long time. Later Kalachuri dynasties of Kalyani (in Karnataka) raised extensive empire covering areas of Gujarat, Malwa, Konkan and parts of Maharashtra. However, after their crippling defeat at the hands of Chalukya Mangalesha, they remained in obscurity for a prolonged period of time. Subsequently, the Kalachuris of Tripuri (Jabalpur) and their branches rose to power in central India.
Gauda Kingdom
They were contemporary of Harsha period and their only one king name Shashank is known who was ruthless against Buddhism and staunch supported of Hinduism. It is said that Shashank only had destroyed the “Bodhi tree” in Gaya. He killed Rajya Vardhana II, brother of Harsh Vardhana. This was also foundation stone of Pala dynasty.
Gurjar- Pratihar Kingdom
Period – 730 AD- 1036 AD
Founder – Harichandra
Origin – Ujjain or Mandsaur
Prominent kings – Nagabhata I (730–760), Vatsaraja, Nagabhata II (800–833), Ramabhadra, Bhoja I (836–885), Bhoja II (910–913), Yasahpala (1024–1036)
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom – Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Rajasthan
Fall – Their position continued to weaken in the 10th century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously fighting off Turkic attacks from the west, the attacks from the Rashtrakuta dynasty from the south and the Pala advances in the East. Monuments – Bateshwar Hindu temples complex, Baroli temples complex, Osian Jain temple, Jalore fort, Kuchaman fort, Teli ka mandir, Krimchi temple, Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple
Tomar- Chauhan dynasty of Ajmer- Delhi
Period – 736 AD – 1192 AD
Founder – Anangpal I in 8th century founded Anangpur (near Faridabad) and later became Chauhan dynasty.
Origin – As the Pratihara power declined, the Tomaras established a sovereign principality around Delhi by the 10th century. Tomar clan king Vigraraj (Vishal Dev) ruling in Ajmer captured Delhi. After him his nephew Prithviraj became king of Delhi in 1051.
Prominent kings – Anangpal I, Anangpal II, Vijaypala, Mahipal, Prithviraj
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom – Delhi and Haryana. stretched to Asigarh Fort and areas at Thanesar
Fall – Prithivraj was not shrewed king as were Muslim invaders. He had enmity with almost all neighbors like Chandels, Gahadawals. Taking advantge Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj. This ended the rule of Chauhans in Delhi in 1192.
Monuments – Lal Kot fort, Anangtal Baoli, Suraj Kund reservoir, Anangpur Dam, Siddhachal Caves in Gwalior, Gwalior Fort
The Tomaras are known from some inscriptions and coins or some legendary novels like Prithviraj Raso. Because of this, the reconstruction of Tomara history is difficult.
Chandel Dynasty
Period – 9th Century AD -1191 AD
Founder – Yesho Varma
Origin – Jejak was ancient name of Bundelkhand. They were feudatory of Gurjar Pratihar. In 9th century Yesho Varma conquered Kalinjar fort and founded Chandel dynasty. Mahoba was his capital.
Prominent kings – Dhanga, Kirti Varma, Parimal
Fall – Parimal was last king of Chandel as surrendered to Prithvi Raj Chauhan in 1191. This ended Chandel rule of 200 years. Last nail by Delhi Sultanate in 1202.
Monuments – Khajuraho, Kalinjar fort
Parmars of Malwa
Period – 9th-14th century AD
Origin – After fall of Pratihar. Siyaka sacked the Rashtrakuta capital, Manyakheta to establish Parmar kingdom
Founder – Upendra in 820 AD.
Kingdom – Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal, Dhar, Maheshwar, Mandu
Prominent kings – Munj (974-995), Raja Bhoj (1018). Bhoj was last king. There were other branches of Paramaras ruling in Rajputana, including Mount Abu, Bhinmal, and others, but the Paramaras of Malwa (Dhar) were the most powerful of all.
Fall– They rose and declined several times due to wars with Chaulukyas, the Kalachuris, Chandelas and other neighbouring kingdoms. The later Paramara rulers moved their capital to Mandu. Mahalakadeva, the last known Paramara king, was defeated and killed by the forces of Alauddin Khalji of Delhi in 1305 AD.
Monuments – Siwana fort in Barmer, Rajasthan
Munj and Bhoja were poet and their capital was Dhar. Munj constructed a huge lake in Bhopal and a Sanskrit University on which stand today a masjid in Bhopal.
Ghadawal of Kannauj
Period -1080 AD- 1191 AD
Founder – Chandra Dev
Prominent Kings – Madanpal, Govind Chand, Vijay Chand, Jaychand
Kingdom – Areas of Kanyakubja (today’s Kannauj district of Uttar Pradesh),Varanasi district, Kushinagar, Deoria, Gorakhpur, Prayagraj district, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra and many parts of Eastern U.P, some areas of Bihar and Jharkhand.
Origin – After fall of Gurjar Pratihar there was chaos in North of India. Finally in 1080 Gahadwal dynasty captured Kannauj defeating Kirtivarma of Chandel dynasty.
Fall – Gahadwal of Kannauj had bitter relation with Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer-Delhi Chouhan dynasty as he had abducted his daughter Sanyogita from Swayambar. In 1192 Mohammad Ghori defeated and killed Prithviraj and then invaded Kannauj and Varabasi also. Jaichand was killed and this ended the reign of Hindu empire in Kannauj.
Religion – Hindu
Monuments–
Pala Dynasty
Period – 750 AD-1175 AD
Founder – Gopal, a general in Gauda kingdom
Origin – When Gauda king Shashank died the people of Gauda kingdom realized the necessity of an able king to continue towards powerful nation and ELECTED Gopal of Kshatriya clan as king. He was a general of Shashank military.
Prominent kings – Dharam pal (750-770), Dev pal, Mahipal I
Religion – Buddhist
Kingdom – Bihar and Bengal and many vassal kingdoms.
Fall – Govind Pal was last king. Kingdom fell due to incapable descendants and Gahadwals.
Monuments – Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur in Bangladesh, Dharmapala Vihar, Bangladesh, Jagaddal Vihar in West Bengal, Odantapuri University Ruins, Bihar Sharief
Dharampal completed the dream of Gauda king Shashank of a greater Bengal kingdom uniting Bengal and Bihar. Even today his valour is sung in folklores. he founded Vikramshila University which was next to Nalanda . Dev pal won many battles, lost too. He won battles against Hunas, Assam, Gurjar-Pratihars against son of Nagbhatt II, raja Bhoj, fought with Rashtrakutas. he constructed temples and monasteries in Magadha. Mahipal I had his rule in Dinajpur, Muzaffarpur, Patna, Gaya, Tippera, North Bengal, East Bengal He also invaded Chola kings. But it is said that he was not involved in confederation of kings against Arabs. patronized the great universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule.
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Period – 753 AD- 973 AD
Founder –
Origin – Not clear
Prominent kings – Dantidurga, Krishna I (758-753), Govind II, Dhruva(780-93), Govind III, Krishna II, Indra III, Krishna III
Religion – Hindu
Fall – During Karka II (972-73) vassals revolted against weak king.
Monuments – Ellora Kailash mandir (Krishna I period) and Elephanta caves
Dhruva had continuous cat and rat with Chalukya, Pratihars, Pallavas, ganga and pala dynasties. They defeated all of them and claimed some territories. Govind III defeated Pallavas, Krishna I ended the empire of Chalukyas and captured Maharastra. Rastrakuta defeated all North Indian kings except Pratihars and Pala kingdoms. Krishna III defeated one or other time Cholas, East Chalukyas, Krishna III was almost whole sole king in South of India.
Chalukya Dynasty
The Chalukya were prominent rulers in South and were contemporary of Pushyabhuti dynasty. They had immense contribution in art and culture. They supported Jainism also. They also established Kananda language in South. Badami cave inscriptions of king Mangalesa, Kappe Arabhatta record of 700, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesin II, the Kanchi Kailasanatha inscription and Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscriptions of Vikramaditya II are all in Kannada. Aihole inscription dated 634 of Pulakesin II represent examples of Sanskrit inscriptions written in old Kannada script.
Monuments – The rock-cut temples of Patadakkal by Vikramaditya II (740AD), Badami Cave Temples (600 AD) and Aihole (5th -7th century) have earned world fame.
Eastern Ganga Dynasty
Period– 493–1077 AD (Kalinga), 1077–1436 AD (Trikalinga), 1436–1947 AD (Khemundi)
Founder – Indravarman I is the first attested historical ruler of the Eastern Ganga dynasty ruling over many vassal chiefs and constructing Dantapura as his capital. King Anantavarman Chodaganga, a descendant of the Western Anant Dynasty
Origin – Lineage from the Western Gangas and Cholas Dynasty.
Prominenet Kings – Anantavarman Chodaganga (1076-1150 AD) – Jagannath Temple, Narsimhadeva I (1238-1264 AD) – Sun Temple
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom– Whole of Odisha, major parts of north Andhra Pradesh, parts of Chhattisgarh and some southern districts of West Bengal
Fall– Bhanudeva IV (1414-AD) was the last king of the Dynasty. After the decline of the Eastern Ganga region, Chalukyas of Vengi took control of this region.
Monuments – Odia language got official status. Jagannath Temple of Puri, Konark Sun Temple, Madhukeshwara temple, Nrusinghanath Temple, Ananta Vasudeva Temple
Pallava Dynasty
Period – 275 AD- 897 AD
Founder – Shivskandvarman
Origin – Rose after Satvahanas weakened. Served as their feudatories.
Prominent kings -Narsingh Varman(550-600), Mahendra Varman I (600-630), Narsingh Varman I, Mahendra Varman II, Nandi Varman II
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom – Dominated the southern Telugu Region and the northern parts of the Tamil region for about 600 years.
Fall – Nandi Varman II was son in law of Dantigurg king of Rashtrakuta dynasy. After him his son Danti Varman succeeded. After him Pallava power shattered due to attacks from Rashtrkutas and Pallavas became vassals, courtiers of Gangas, Cholas and Rashtrkutas.
Monuments – Mahendra varman I (600-630) founded Mahabalipuram temples in Tamilnadu and made it sea port. he also built temple caves in Tiruchirapalli, Chingalpur. During Narsimha Varman II times bricks and wood usage started in temples. He also defeated Pulkeshin II 3 times and killed him. Poet Bharvi writer of “Keertaye Arjun” was courtier in Narsingh Varman. During Pallava time the Shaiv and Vaishnav literature flourished in South, Jainism and Buddhism faded. Kanchi was center of Sanskrit.
Chola dynasty
Period – Existed from 300 BC – 848 AD but in low ebb.
Medieval Cholas – 848-1070 AD, Later Cholas (1070-1279 AD)
Founder – Vijayalaya (848-881) who ruled in Kaveri banks.
Origin – Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century in Rock edict 13 at Kalsi 44 KM from Dehradun. Little written evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century. After Sangam period Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the Tamil country and displaced Chola. Nothing is known about them until Vijayalaya was enthroned. Some literature mention about them at lowest ebb.
Prominent kings – Aditya I(871–907), Parantaka I (907–954), Rajaraja I(985–1014), Rajendra I (1012–1044), Rajadhiraja (1018–1054), Kulothunga I(1070–1120), Rajendra III(1246–1279)
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom –
Fall – Rise of Pandyan dynasty caused the fall in 13th century beginning. The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak.
Monuments – Under Vijayalaya’s son and grandson Aditya and Parantaka there was great temple building activity. Parantaka was great Shiva devotee and covered Chidambaram temple with gold. Brihdeshwara temple Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Aireteshwar temple, Darasuram in Kumbhkonam
Pandya Dynasty
Period – 4th Century BC – 6th century. 6th-10th century unknown, 13th-14th Century
Founder –
Origin – Tamil lineage. Ashoka edicts, Roman accounts and Sangam literature mention Pandyas.
Prominent kings – 6th-10th Century- Kadungon, Randhira, Varagun varman II, Maravarman Rajasimha II
13th-14th century – Maravarman Sundara I (1216-1238), Jatavarman Sundara I, Maravarman Kulsekara I, Vira Pandiyan IV (1309-45)
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom – Thanjavur, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Coimbatore, Madurai, South Travancore, Sri Lanka
Fall – Family quarrels, Hoysala in 1279 disintegrated them. Still they ruled in pockets till 16th century until dissolved in Muslim kingdoms. Monuments – Jambukeswara Temple, Tiruchirapalli, Meenakshi Temple, Madurai, Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
Pandyas were black complexioned, cruel and cared not for culture. They were good traders. They continuously fought wars with all kingdoms irrespective of their powers. They were so great warriors that an alliance was created by Cholas, Pallavas, Kalingas, Magadha and Ganga kings to beat their expansion. They are celebrated and sung in Tamil poetry even today.
Hoysala Dynasty
Period – 10th-14th century AD
Founder –
Origin – In 12th century they took advantage of fight between Badami chalukya and Kalchuri and annexed most of Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra. Vishnuvardhana’s ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from domination by the Chalukya Empire.
Prominent kings – Vishnuvardhana (1152–1173), Veera Ballala II (1220–1235), Narasimha III (1292–1343), Veera Ballala III (1292–1343)
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom – Karnataka. By the 13th century, they governed most of Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in the Deccan Plateau.
Fall – This new Hindu kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as the Vijayanagara Empire.
Monuments – Chennakeshava Temple in Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple in Somanathapuram in Karnataka.
Initially they were subordinates of Chalukya. Through Vishnuvardhana’s expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a real kingdom for the first time. Vishnuvardhana’s ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II. he beat Pandyas who attacked Cholas and hence was called establisher of Later Chola but same time who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 1187–1193. Veera Ballala III consolidated it. Vira Narasimha II’s son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific “uncle” (Mamadi) from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom also. Veera Ballala III stationed himself at Tiruvannamalai and offered stiff resistance to invasions from the north and the Madurai Sultanate of Allauddin Khilji to the south.
This new Hindu kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as the Vijayanagara Empire. The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong, and this is seen even in their epigraphs.
Chera (Keralaputra) Dynasty
Period – 4th century BC, 3rd-5th century AD unknown, 6th-10th Century, 13th-14th century.
Founder – Unknown
Origin – Tamil origin. Early Chearas- Emperor Ashoka’s Pali edicts, Romans, Tolemy.
Prominent kings – 6th-10th century – Kadungon, (590-620) Chadiya Randhira, Varagun Varman III (862-880), Maravarman Rajasimha(900-920).
13th-14th Century – Maravarman Sundra I (1216-1238), Jatavarman (1251-1268), Maravarman Kulsekara (1268-1310). Vira Pandiyan (1309-1345) was last king.
Religion – Hindu
Kingdom – Present day state of Kerala and some parts of Tamil Nadu in southern India like Thanjavur, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Coimbatore, Madurai and Sri Lanka.
Fall – family quarrels, Hoysala wiped them but they continued in pockets and dissolved in Muslim rule.
Monuments – Thiruvanchikulam temple, Kodungallur, Thrissur district, Pallyil temple, Odungallur, Thrissur district, Bhagavathi Amman temple, Kanyakumari, Kalambar Koil, Tiruchirapalli
Cheras were black complexion, cruel and not followed any Gods in initial time. Later they adopted Hinduism. They were great warriors and traders and traded with Greeko-Romans. They had see-saw battles with Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas. To stop them an alliance was made between these empires and Magadha,, Kalinga. These wars did not weaken them and had come backs. They are celebrated in Tamil poetry.
North East Kingdoms
Period – 13th-20th Century
Kingdom – Ahom Dynasty (1228 AD- 1838 AD) Upper Assam , Koch dynasty (1515-1947) in West and South Assam , Meitei rulers in Manipur (363-1891), kings in Meghalaya, Namgyal or Chogyals dynasty (1642-1975) in Sikkim, Manikya dynasty in Tripura (13 -20 century), Mizoram – Chieftains, Chieftains or village council in Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh
Religion – Hinduism, Ahom religion, Buddhism, Ekasarana Dharma. Many converted to Christians during British rule.
Fall – Burmese attacks, British rule
Monuments – Rang Ghar, Kareng Ghar, Talatal Ghar, Gargaon Palace, Gargaon Palace, Gargaon Palace, Charaideo Maidam, Namdang Stone Bridge, Sivasagar Tank. All in Assam and by Ahom dynasty.
Epilogue
We saw few caves, forts, lakes, temples which are the historical legacy of BC era in India. In AD era also caves continued by Satavahanas, Vakatakas. The AD era forts are in dilapidated condition yet fascinate the visitors as these are the monuments and have associate the past glory of our ancestors. The forts are almost in dust or next dynasties built newer on it. Temples of this era are still in use. But in any way if we compare with modern technology the caves, Hindu and Buddhist temples, dams still fascinate and stun us and are unparalleled to modern times. There are many museums in India which display the precious friezes, fresco and sculptures of these 1200 years. Few such rich museums I saw in Patna, Ujjain, Thanjavur and Mathura.
Visits: 507