When Muslim powers started rising, the Byzantine Christian empire was ruling in the Near East, Middle East, and Balkan regions. Let us have a look at the Byzantine Empire timeline. The Byzantines adopted Christianity officially, but the people continued Roman culture and called themselves Romans.
In order to understand the expansion of these empires, let us also have a look at the modern map of the Near East, Middle East, and Balkans.
Name of the empire: Byzantine Empire. It was the Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire term invented by later historians.
Period – 330 AD – 1453 AD
Founder – Constantine the Great
Origin – Roman Empire so their culture was Roman
Kings – Constantine the Great (306–337) → Justinian I (527–565) → Heraclius (610–641) → Leo III (717–741) → Basil I (867–886) → Basil II (976–1025) → Alexios I (1081–1118) → Constantine XI (1449–1453)
Religion – Christianity but public called them as Romans
Cause of Fall – In the 7th century, the Byzantine Empire lost large territories such as Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to the Muslim armies of the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates. The Byzantine Empire survived for centuries afterward, centered on Constantinople. Eventually, the Muslim Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453 and ended the Byzantine Empire.
Regions under control – At its peak around 1000 CE under Emperor Basil II, the Byzantine Empire controlled much of the eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans, including present-day Greece, western and central Turkey (Anatolia), Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Albania, parts of Serbia and Montenegro, southern Romania, southern Italy, Cyprus, small coastal regions of northern Syria, and parts of Georgia and Armenia, along with several neighboring vassal territories.
Achievements and impact on the world—Constantine the Great established Constantinople (now known as Istanbul) and made Christianity a recognized faith. He altered the religious landscape of Europe and the Middle East.
Justinian I developed one of the most significant legal codes in history, constructed the stunning Hagia Sophia, and was the last emperor to momentarily reunite a large portion of the former Roman Empire.
Leo III defended Constantinople against Arab invasion, playing a key role in safeguarding Christian Europe.
Basil II was the most formidable military emperor of the Byzantine Empire, leading it to its zenith of power around 1000 CE.
Monuments created by them—Justinian I built the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. Originally built as a Christian cathedral in the sixth century, it has served as a cathedral, a mosque, a museum, and again a mosque, symbolizing Istanbul’s layered religious and imperial history.
Before diving into the Islamic Caliphate, we need to grasp the root of the conflict between Shia and Sunnis.
After the passing of Muhammad Sahab, the Rashidun Caliphate began and had 4 caliphs.
Four caliphs of Rashidun Caliphate
Abu Bakr (632–634 CE) – father-in-law of Prophet Muhammad
Umar ibn al-Khattab (634–644 CE),
Uthman ibn Affan (644–656 CE)
Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE)—cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad
Shia Perspective: They believed that leadership should stay within the Prophet’s family. They viewed only the 4th caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the rightful first successor, being the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad.
Sunni Perspective: They thought the caliph should be selected by the Muslim community.
During the Rashidun Caliphate, Sunnis recognized the first three caliphs, while Shia only see the fourth caliph as the most legitimate.
Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 600–661 CE) was the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad and is a key figure in Islamic history. Shia Muslims believed that leadership was meant for Ali ibn Abi Talib and his descendants. Tensions escalated after the death of Husayn ibn Ali (son of Ali ibn Abi Talib) at the Battle of Karbala, which occurred under the Umayyad caliph Yazid I. Karbala is a pivotal event in Shia history. With the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Rashidun Caliphate came to an end.
Name of the empire: Rashidun Caliphate
Period – 632 AD-661 AD
Founder—Abu Bakr (father-in-law of prophet Muhammad)
Origin—When Prophet Muhammad died in Medina in 632 CE, the Muslim community faced a crucial question: who would lead the newly united Muslim state? The companions of Muhammad selected Abu Bakr as the first caliph, as he was the closest companion of the Prophet Muhammad. This marked the beginning of the Rashidun Caliphate. The word “Rashidun” means “Rightly Guided,” referring to the first four caliphs who are highly respected in Sunni Islam.
Prominent kings—Abu Bakr (632–634 CE), the first caliph—unified Arabia after the death of Prophet Muhammad and suppressed tribal rebellions during the Ridda Wars. Umar ibn al-Khattab (634–644 CE), under whom the Islamic state expanded dramatically, conquering Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and much of Persia while establishing an efficient administrative system. Uthman ibn Affan (644–656 CE) is best remembered for standardizing and compiling the Quran into a single official text. The fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE), who was both a cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, was the last caliph and was assassinated.
Religion – Islam Sunni
Cause of Fall – Ali ibn Abi Talib (656–661 CE) faced internal civil wars that led to significant divisions within the Muslim community and marked the end of the Rashidun era.
Regions under control—North Africa to Persia. It included the entire Arabian Peninsula (modern Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait), Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, large parts of Iran (Persia), and portions of present-day Libya, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and eastern Turkey.
Achievements and impact on the world—The Rashidun Caliphate transformed Islam from a regional faith centered in Arabia into a major world civilization. Compiled the Quran into a single official text, preserving it for future generations. Their contribution was the rapid spread of Islam across the Middle East and beyond, the defeat of the Byzantine and Sassanian Persian empires in many regions, and the establishment of political, legal, and cultural foundations that shaped later Islamic civilizations. The caliphate laid the groundwork for the Umayyad and Abbasid empires, which would become major centers of learning, science, trade, and culture for centuries.
Monuments created—They are not remembered for architecture but for the expansion of Islam.
Name of the empire: Umayyad Caliphate
Period – 661-750 AD
Founder – Muawiya I (661–680 CE)
Origin – After the assassination of Ali ibn Abi Talib and his son Husayn ibn Ali in 661 CE, the Muslim world was divided by civil war. The governor of Syria, Muawiya I, emerged as the strongest leader and became caliph. He belonged to the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, from which the caliphate takes its name. He moved the capital from Medina to Damascus and established a hereditary dynasty, transforming the caliphate from an elected leadership into a dynastic empire.
Prominent kings – Muawiya I (661–680 CE) → Yazid I (680–683 CE) → Muawiya II (683–684 CE) → Marwan I (684–685 CE) → Abd al-Malik (685–705 CE) → Al-Walid I (705–715 CE) → Umar II (717–720 CE) → Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (724–743 CE).
Religion – Islam Sunni
Cause of Fall – Discrimination between Arabs and non-Arabs, uprisings, and since size was very big, some governors became independent. The most important cause was the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasids gained support from Persians, non-Arab Muslims, and opponents of Umayyad rule. In 750 CE, they defeated the Umayyad army. Most members of the Umayyad ruling family were killed.
Regions under control—the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) in the west across North Africa, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula, Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Persia (Iran), extending eastward into parts of Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the northwestern regions of India (Sindh).
Achievements and impact on the world—Abd al-Malik (685–705 CE) introduced a common Islamic currency, made Arabic the official language of administration, and built the famous Dome of the Rock. Al-Walid I (705–715 CE) conquered Spain in the west and reached the borders of India in the east. Umar II (717–720 CE) promoted fair treatment of non-Arab Muslims. The empire of Ibn Abd al-Malik (724–743 CE) had the greatest size. One Umayyad prince, Abd al-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and founded the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba, which later became a powerful caliphate
Monuments created—The Dome of the Rock by Abd al-Malik in 692 AD and Al-Aqsa Mosque in 705 CE by various rulers, both in Jerusalem; Qasr al-Mshatta is an early Islamic desert palace located near Amman, Jordan. Built in the mid-8th century by Al-Walid I is the UNESCO World Heritage site Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi, a desert castle in the Syrian Desert built by Al-Walid II, and on the tentative UNESCO list is the Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria, built by Al-Walid I.
Name of the empire: Abbasid Caliphate
Period – 750-1258 AD
Founder – Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah
Origin – The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE) originated from a revolution against the Umayyad Caliphate. The Abbasids claimed descent from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the uncle of Prophet Muhammad. Because of this family connection, they argued that leadership of the Muslim world should belong to Muhammad’s relatives rather than the Umayyad dynasty.
Prominent kings – Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah (750–754 CE), Al-Mansur (754–775 CE), Harun al-Rashid (786–809 CE), Al-Ma’mun (813–833 CE)
Religion – Islam Sunni
Cause of Fall – The Abbasid Caliphate did not collapse suddenly; its decline occurred over several centuries and culminated in 1258 CE. Various dynasties such as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Seljuk Empire in Persia and Anatolia challenged Abbasid authority. Military dependence on foreign troops and economic issues with the final blow by the Mongols.
Regions under control – Present-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, parts of Algeria, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and portions of the Caucasus region.
Achievemnts and impact on the world—Al-Mansur (754–775 CE) built the new capital, Baghdad, in 762 CE, Harun al-Rashid (786–809 CE), presided over the Abbasid Golden Age, encouraged learning, trade, literature, and science. Became famous through stories in the One Thousand and One Nights.
Al-Ma’mun (813–833 CE) founded and supported the House of Wisdom (institution) and promoted science, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy.
Monuments created – The Great Mosque of Samarra, built by Caliph Al-Mutawakkil in the 9th century; the Abbasid Palace; and the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. House of Wisdom became the world’s foremost center of learning and helped preserve and advance knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, and science. Their architectural and intellectual legacy profoundly influenced both the Islamic world and later European civilization.
Name of the empire: Buyid Empire
Period – 934–1062 CE
Founder—Ali ibn Buya (Imad al-Dawla) (934–949)
Origin—The Buyids were a Persian Shia Muslim dynasty from northern Iran. They conquered much of Iran and Iraq and captured Baghdad in 945 CE.
Prominent kings – Ali ibn Buya founded the Buyid Empire → Ahmad ibn Buya captured Baghdad and dominated the Abbasid Caliphate → Adud al-Dawla brought the Buyid Empire to its political, cultural, and economic peak.
Religion – Islamic Shia
Cause of Fall—Internal family disputes, rivalry among governors. Seljuks replace Buyids and dominate the Abbasids.
Regions under control—Much of Iran and Iraq. Although the Abbasid Caliphs remained in Baghdad, the Buyids took the real political and military power, government, and finances.
Achievements and impact on the world—Caliph became largely a symbolic figure. Ali ibn Buya laid the foundation of a powerful Persian dynasty in Iran.
Monuments created—Not famous
Name of the empire: Seljuk
Period – 1055-1194 AD
Founder—Tughril Beg
Origin – The Seljuks migrated from Central Asia into the Islamic world and converted to Islam. They entered Persia as skilled warriors and gradually became powerful military leaders. In 1040, the Abbasid caliph invited Tughril Beg for protection from the weakening Buyids. The Buyid rulers were removed from power without major resistance.
Prominent kings – Tughril Beg (1037–1063), Alp Arslan (1063–1072), Malik Shah I (1072–1092)
Religion – Islam Sunni
Cause of Fall—The Crusades, the rise of independent regional rulers, and the expansion of the Khwarazmian Empire (a powerful Persianate in Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan).
Regions under control – Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, parts of Pakistan, eastern and central Turkey (Anatolia), and portions of Georgia and Kazakhstan
Achievements and impact on world- Although the Great Seljuk Empire disappeared, its Anatolian branch survived and eventually paved the way for the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
Monuments created – Great Mosque of Isfahan, Tomb of Sultan Sanjar
Name of the empire: Mamluk
Period –1250 AD-1516 AD
Founder—Mamluk military
Origin – The Mamluks were not originally a tribe, nation, or dynasty. The word “Mamluk” means “owned” or “slave” in Arabic. Converted to Islam. After the Mongols destroyed Baghdad in 1258, the Mamluks of Egypt emerged as the dominant Muslim power.
Beginning in the Abbasid period, Muslim rulers purchased young boys—mainly from Turkic regions of Central Asia and later from the Caucasus (especially Circassians)—and trained them as elite military soldiers. After the death of As-Salih Ayyub in 1249, political instability followed. In 1250 CE, the Mamluk military elite seized power and established the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt.
Prominent kings – Qutuz (1259–1260) → Baybars (1260–1277) → Al-Nasir Muhammad (1293–1341) → Barquq (1382–1399) → Qansuh al-Ghawri (1501–1516).
Religion – Islam Sunni
Cause of Fall—Rise of the Ottoman Empire, not modernizing military, succession disputes and rivalry
Regions under control – Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, western and northwestern Arabia (including Mecca and Medina), the Gaza region, and parts of present-day southern Turkey along the frontier with Anatolia.
Achievements and impact on the world– Defeated the Mongols. Protected the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.
Became the leading Muslim power after the fall of Baghdad. Ruled until the Ottoman conquest. Drove the Crusaders out of many strongholds. Saved Egypt and the Islamic world from Mongol conquest. Made Egypt the leading Muslim state.
Monuments created – Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan (Cairo, Egypt)
Name of the empire: Ottoman
Period—1299 AD–1922 AD
Founder – Osman I
Origin – In the 11th century, Turkic peoples from Central Asia migrated westward and embraced Islam. One of these groups, the Oghuz Turks, established the Seljuk Empire, which came to dominate much of Anatolia after defeating the Byzantines. When the Seljuk Empire weakened in the 13th century due to Mongol invasions, Anatolia broke into many small Turkish principalities called beyliks.
One of these small frontier states was ruled by Osman I, and that eventually culminated in the Ottoman Empire. His followers became known as the Osmanli (“followers of Osman”), which Europeans later pronounced as Ottoman.
Prominent kings – Osman I (1299–1326) → Orhan (1326–1362) → Murad I (1362–1389) → Bayezid I (1389–1402) → Mehmed II (1451–1481) → Selim I (1512–1520) → Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) → Murad IV (1623–1640) → Mahmud II (1808–1839) → Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909) → Mehmed VI (1918–1922)
Religion – Islam Sunni
Cause of Fall – European powers such as Britain, France, Russia, and later Germany had modernized their armies and technology much faster. Many ethnic groups, like Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and Arabs under Ottoman rule, sought independence. The Ottoman Empire joined World War I on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary. After their defeat, the empire lost most of its remaining territories.
Regions under control – Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Albania, Romania (partly), Hungary (partly), Croatia (partly), Ukraine (partly), Syria, Lebanon, Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, western Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria.
Achievements and impact on the world- Mehmed II conquered Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire forever. Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) expanded the Ottoman Empire to its greatest extent across Europe, Asia, and Africa. He also reformed laws, strengthened administration, and presided over the empire’s golden age in art, architecture, and culture.
Monuments created- Blue Mosque (1609–1616), Suleymaniye Mosque (1550–1557), Topkapi Palace, Grand Bazaar, and Dolmabahce Palace, all in Istanbul or nearby districts. Selimiye Mosque (1568–1575) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Edirne, northwestern Turkey.
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