Prior to my exploration of New York’s museums, I had the opportunity to visit several institutions, including the British Museum. However, I found myself less captivated by the concept of ‘Art.’ Upon my visits to the Metropolitan Museum, the Jewish Museum, and the Museum of the American Indian and many more, I began to perceive ‘Art’ as having a familial connection to history. If we consider civilization as the father figure, then ‘Art’ can be viewed as the mother. This led me to contemplate the evolution of civilizations alongside the progression of Art.
To approach this topic more systematically, I propose dividing the art of civilizations into two categories: the Orient and the Occident. In the Orient, I would include the artistic developments of Mesopotamian, Persian, Indus, Chinese, Japanese, and Southeast Asian civilizations, primarily focusing on the Near East and Asia. Conversely, the Occident would encompass the Far East, Europe, and North America. As I have not yet visited South America, I will exclude it for the time being, with the intention of including it in the future.
Due to the vastness of artistic expressions, I will provide only a few illustrative examples that I happened to see in some museums.
Chinese porcelain stands as a significant testament to the transoceanic trade that connected China, Japan, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, and both South and North America. This trade not only transformed dining customs but also introduced various food items, including spices, sugar, and tea. A map illustrating the global exchange of these items is provided for reference.
Chinese ceramics reached Europe prior to the sixteenth century; those that did were treaured goods often displayed in precious metal mounts. The situation changed drastically when the Portuguese began importing porcelain, including the works meant for their emperial courts. In the 17th century, about 9 million Chinese porcelains were imported into Europe. With the invention of Chinese porcelain, the pottery was more dense, harder, and beautifully painted in cobalt blue and a range of enamel colours. Europeans emulated these successfully in the 18th century in Germany in town Meissen.
In the 18th century, Chinese potters also copied European wooden, metal, and glass vessels. Conversely, Chinese shapes—particularly teapots—reached Europe. The teapot was an adaptation of a wine vessel that developed in response to a shift from drinking powdered tea to that made by steeping leaves. On these porcelains were depicted the rich visual language of Chinese culture: beautiful landscapes, flowers, birds, animals, and narrative tales, which were reinterpreted in Germany, France, and England. The range of colours used to paint European porcelain, however, often derives from Japan, which first began to export due to chaos in Chinese dynasties. Japanese pottery, porcelain, is painted using two distinct pallets, showing pinks, blues, and greens, deeper hues.
From the sixth to the ninth century, the Chinese ceramic industry exploded with the discovery of porcelain and with hundreds of kilns making high-fired stoneware covered with thick brown, black, and green glazes. At the same time, transoceanic trade linking China with the rest of Asia, the Middle East, and eastern Africa expanded significantly, and ceramics became valued trade items. Harder, denser, and more durable than ceramics produced elsewhere, and more elegant and hygienic, Chinese ceramics spurred developments in these regions, particularly in the Islamic world. After the fourteenth century, a new product― porcelain painted with cobalt blue (or blue-and-white) dominated the ceramic industry. From the sixteenth to the early nineteenth century, the city of Jingdezhen was the largest producer and distributor of ceramics in the world, sending millions of works overseas, including Europe, after the sixteenth century, and the United States, after the late eighteenth. Unrivaled anywhere, Chinese porcelain-painted with cobalt blue and colored enamels, or covered with lush glazes-was emulated everywhere.
White, Brown, Black: Chinese Ceramics, 4th-14th Century By the sixth century, China produced the most diverse and technically advanced ceramics in the world-and in unprecedented quantities. Until this time, ceramics were often placed in tombs, where vessels served as substitutes for those in bronze or lacquer, and where figures representing attendants and animals were thought to serve the needs of an individual’s afterlife. Several factors contributed to the explosion of the ceramics industry from the sixth to the fourteenth century. Some were technical, such as the development of high-fired stoneware with glazes, and the discovery of porcelain. Others, such as changes in dining and drinking, were social. In particular, tea, a beverage first used in the foothills of the Himalayas, became popular due in part to its role as a stimulant for Buddhist meditation. At the time, tea was made from ground powder derived from a cake or brick, whisked, and mixed with salt, spices, herbs, and fruits. The appreciation of white, brown, black, and green ceramics was often linked to the appearance of the whisked tea in bowls in these colors. A third factor, the expansion of transoceanic trade, was economic. Harder, denser, and more durable than ceramics produced elsewhere, and more elegant and hygienic, Chinese ceramics were treasured trade items sent throughout Southeast Asia, West Asia, and Africa, often spurring the development of new types of ceramics in those regions.
During the sixth to the fourteenth century, hundreds of kiln complexes worked throughout China to meet the ever-growing demand for ceramics. Some produced wares for domestic use; some for domestic use and trade; and some-Ding, Ru, Ju, Guan, and Ge-at times made pieces for the court. Ceramics made from the fourth to the fourteenth century are catalogued by names, often historical, that are based on the geographic location of the kilns that produced them. After the fourteenth century, during which China was ruled by the foreign Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), most of the kiln complexes disappeared, and a new product-porcelain painted with cobalt blue-and a single center of production-Jingdezhen in the southeast province of Jiangxi-began to dominate the Chinese ceramic industry.
This Stucco with traces of color is of 6th-7th century found in China, Xinjiang, Pialma (75 km west of Khotan). This architectural fragment is one of a small group of early Ganesha images found around the important Silk Road trading center of Khotan in Central Asia. Meeting the worshipper’s gaze with expressive human eyes, it is clear this is no mere elephant, but a god.
The presence of a Hindu deity in a mostly Buddhist kingdom reveals how the religion spread along trade routes. For travelers traversing the long and arduous Silk Road, how appropriate to pay homage to this remover of obstacles and bringer of wealth and abundance.
Arts of Japan
Japan’s visual culture encompasses a wide array of elements, including Mount Fuji, manga, tea ceremonies, anime, Buddhist temples, bullet trains, calligraphy, and emojis. This rich tapestry reflects the nation’s intricate artistic heritage, which defies oversimplified interpretations. Throughout history, the Japanese have adapted various artistic styles, writing systems, concepts, literature, and folklore from other cultures, infusing them with their unique perspectives—characterized by a sensitivity to seasonal changes, an appreciation for imperfection and asymmetry, and a penchant for bold experimentation with vibrant colors. Since the sixteenth century, following the arrival of Europeans, this ongoing and multifaceted dialogue has had a global dimension, significantly contributing to Japan’s profound impact on international art, from Japonisme to contemporary animation.
Two Poems about Palace Gossip -Traditionally attributed to Fujiwara no Sadayori (995-1045), Early 12th century Page from a bound booklet mounted as a hanging scroll; ink on mica paper with gold flecks. This work has traditionally been attributed to Fujiwara no Sadayori, who was instrumental in establishing an orthodox form of Japanese courtly calligraphy. More likely, an unknown courtier or court lady of the later Heian period expertly transcribed the two poems seen here. The calligraphy is graceful yet firm, with smooth kana strokes (system of syllabic writing used for Japanese) devoid of flamboyant ligatures.
One poem reads:
“Though the rumors people spread
are as rank as the summer fields, how could I cope
if your love for me withered and we could not meet?”
Pair of Octagonal Bowls with Dragons and Auspicious Motifs shown here are art of Meiji period (1868-1912) but recreated in 19th century. The so-called gold-brocade style refers to a type of porcelain with detailed gold patterning made in China for the Japanese market during the sixteenth century. The technique was revived in Kyoto in the nineteenth century as part of the growing interest in Chinese culture. Tokuzen was the thirteenth-generation head of the local Eiraku family of potters, whose lineage can be traced back to the sixteenth century.
Incense Burner (Koro) in the Shape of a Courtier’s Hat with Scrolling Peonies belongs to Edo period (1615-1868). It is porcelain with celadon glaze (Hizen ware, Nabeshima type). Over a relief pattern of peonies and scrolling vines, the surface of this incense burner is covered with a thick layer or two of glaze, as was characteristic of Nabeshima-type celadon vessels. The object’s complex form is based on the type of hat worn by courtiers during the Heian period (794-1185). These black-lacquered kanmuri had a shallow cap, a tall receptacle for the wearer’s topknot, two crossbars to provide stability, and a long, flat tail at the back. The unique shape of this refined celadon object recalls the representation of aristocrats in Japanese literary classics, such as The Tale of Genji.
These are set of three hanging scrolls; ink on paper. Monk Zhaozhou and Dog, with Geese and Mynah. Artist Unkoku Toeki (1591-1644) of Edo period (1615-1868), first half 17th century.
This work combines three seemingly unrelated subjects in a single, multi-scroll composition, a format common in early Zen devotional painting and adopted widely during the sixteenth century. The central scroll illustrates the Chan monk Zhaozhou Congshen (Joshu Jushin, 778-897), perhaps best remembered for his response to the koan “Does a dog have a Buddha nature?” He replied simply, “Wu,” meaning on one level “no.” In a Zen mindset, however, this may have been a short verbal signal to stop the logical process of trying to find an answer. Zhaozhou is flanked by so-called bird-and- flower subjects, originating in China-two geese and autumnal reeds at right, and a mynah atop a tree stump at left. The artist Toeki belonged to the Unkoku school, painters-in-attendance to the powerful Mori clan.
Tea Culture in Japan: Chinese and Japanese Styles The custom of drinking matcha, finely ground green tea, was introduced to Japan in the Kamakura period (1185-1333) by Chinese Chan (Zen) monks. Japan’s military class in particular embraced chanoyu-the culture that emerged around the preparation and sharing of matcha-with a preference for the use of wares imported from China. In the sixteenth century, tastes shifted toward tea gatherings held within small, rustic-style huts utilizing domestic tea utensils. Advanced by the leading tea master Sen no Riky (1522-1591), this practice of wabi-cha was characterized by an aesthetic concern with “perfect imperfection.” This Japanese style gradually gained popularity among urban elites.
When the Chinese monk Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen Ryuki, 1592-1673) immigrated to Japan, he and his disciples transplanted aspects of contemporary Chinese culture in the context of his new branch of Zen Buddhism, Obaku. He also introduced sencha, prepared by infusing whole, roasted tea leaves in water. This transmission of Chinese literati values and tea-drinking habits gave rise to a new aesthetic canon. Japanese literati drew inspiration from their Chinese precursors and, amid the social and political tensions of the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868), forged an artistic, philosophical, and antiauthoritarian worldview. Sencha tea gatherings were a key part of this way of life; with their informal yet scholarly nature, they attracted many followers.
Indochina
10th-13th century Cambodia –
In the eighth century, the pre-Angkor kingdom of Chenla, which for the first time had briefly unified all of Cambodia, disintegrated. About 790 a Chenla nobleman returned from a long stay at the Shailendra court in Java. He began military campaigns that led to the reunification of Cambodia. In 802 he gave himself the title Jayavarman II and established a capital at Phnom Kulen, twenty miles from Angkor. He founded the Khmer dynasty, which ruled for the next five hundred years. Yashovarman (889-900 AD) began the great city of Angkor that was the capital and site of the majority of royal building projects for the duration of the empire except for the period from 921 to 945, when a usurper set up a second capital at Koh Ker. In the early eleventh century, the Khmers controlled most of southern Thailand, from Lop Buri in the north to Ligor in the south; and, for the next two hundred years, this area produced variant Khmer styles. During the reign of the great Khmer ruler Suryavarman II (1113- 1150), the empire was significantly expanded and the famous monument Angkor Wat was constructed. The next major ruler, Jayavarman VII (1181- 1219), enlarged the empire to its farthest limits. Under his rule, the temple Bayon was constructed in the center of his royal city, Angkor Thom. He instituted as the state religion a form of Buddhism in which the Buddha and the Bodhisattva Lokeshvara (World Savior) were conceived to be prototypes of the human king.
The Angkor styles were named by French scholars after the royal temple- mountains built by each of the Khmer kings. The only exception is the style of Banteay Srei, named after a temple to Shiva built for the priest Guru Yajnavaraha and finished in 967. Khmer sculpture includes low-relief narratives; high-relief architectural elements; and independent sculptures in the round, which are conceived as basically frontal. Khmer styles can be dated by the dis- tinctive fashion in which the garments (sampots for men and sarongs for women) were worn in different periods.
Vietnam -10th century
The kingdom of Champa was situated primarily in the central coastal region of Vietnam. The Chams were an ethnic group distinct from the Mons (an ethnic group that originated in Burma and are also found in Thailandand) and the Khmers. From as early as the fifth century, Champa was dominated by alternat- ing periods of Khmer and Chinese rule. Although it was undoubtedly an important art-producing kingdom at this early period, little survives before the nineth century. The important sites of the nineth century were Hoa-lai, Dong-duong, and Mi-son. The art found there was inspired mainly by the traditions of Java and Angkor. It seems also to have been somewhat influenced by the little-known pre- Angkor Vietnamese tradition.
India, Pakistan
I did not see any ceramics artefacts in this museum. The Buddha’s cremated remains were contained in reliquaries, which in turn were placed in large hemispherical mounds called stupas. The relics of the Buddha were believed to be the pure, material stuff of enlightenment, and being in proximity to them was to be in the presence of an enlightened force. Many Gandharan reliquaries contain a range of objects-including crystal beads, gold foil flowers, pears, red coral, and coins-that were donated to the relic and placed inside the reliquary.
Burma
Probably as early as the second century B.C, the culture of Burma was influenced by its western neighbor, India. Burma was occupied by a series of ethnic groups. Each established a kingdom in a different part of the country. The Mons arrived in the third century B.C., the Pyus came next, and the Burmans settled there in the ninth century. The early art of Burma is named after the Pyu kingdom, which lasted from the seventh to the eleventh century and had its capital at Prome. Although predominantly Buddhist, Pyu also produced Hindu images.
The founding of the Burmese kingdom of Pagan (Tibeto-Burman group) is usually dated to 1057, when King Anawratha destroyed the Mon capital of Thaton. Thereupon he embraced Buddhism in lieu of the worship of nats (nature, hero, and ancestor spirits). The Pagan period lasted until the kingdom was sacked by Kublai Khan, grand son of Changez Khan, in 1287 and incorporated into the Mongol empire. The sculpture and mural painting of the Pagan period were heavily influenced by the arts of India of the Pala-Sena dynasties. The architecture was influenced by that of Orissa, Bihar, and Southeast Asia.
This glazed serving dish, painted with a central motif of a spirited four-petaled flower and with a flower-and-vine meander in the cavetto, is distinguished by several technical features. Its coarse body displays a pinkish tone where exposed in firing. A white slip analyzed to be a tin-based alkaline lead glaze has been decorated with a copper- based solution that fired green. This ceramic type is typical of lower Myanmar, though the object has not been linked to a specific kiln.
Art of Tibet
Tibetan art, like traditional Tibetan society in general, was shaped by the central role of monastic Buddhism. Over time, four major orders of Buddhism emerged across the Tibetan plateau, each with a different lineage. All practiced Vajrayana Buddhism, based directly on tantra, a form of esoteric religious practice adopted from medieval India. Central to the creation of tantric art is the process of visualization, achieved through meditation by an advanced practitioner. The sculpture, murals, and cloth paintings (tangkas) thus created served as aids to future generations of practitioners, both novices and adepts. Indian mahasiddhas (“great adepts”)-tantric yogini masters of religious magic and sometime authors of tantric treatises-were revered in Tibet, eighty-four being canonized.
Buddhism arrived in Tibet from India during the fifth century and was further stimulated by interactions with Chinese Tang Buddhist culture. A seminal moment was the arrival of Padmasambhava (“lotus born”), a revered Indian exponent of tantric Buddhism. In the late eighth century, King Trisong
Detsen invited him to Tibet, where he founded the Nyingma Order, the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism. With him came the first wave of external influence, from Kashmir. In the eleventh century, the famed Bengali monk Atisha was invited to Tibet to reintroduce Vajrayana orthodoxy, often characterized as the “second wave.” Successive waves of artistic stimulus came from Central Asia, China, Kashmir, Pala India, and Nepal. Perhaps most significant was the work of itinerant artists from Kashmir and, especially in later centuries, from the Newaris of Nepal. Both were famed and respected for their artistic contributions to monastic art in Tibet, and their legacy resulted in the synthesis we recognize as the Tibetan style.
On the upper cover, Shadakshari Lokesvara is flanked by Maitreya to his right and Avalokiteshvara to his left. Shadakshari is a form of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara who presides over our current age, protecting us and offering a compassionate path to enlightenment. The Dalai Lama is understood to be an incarnation of Shadakshari Lokesvara, and he fosters spiritual knowledge in this form. These three bodhisattvas on the upper cover are paired on the lower cover with Atisha flanked by Tibetan patriarchs, relating the role of these important human figures with those of the divine realm. Maitreya is a bodhisattva and the future Buddha in Buddhism. He is the fifth and final Buddha of the current age, and is believed to be reborn as a human to teach enlightenment and lead the world to peace.
Shadakshari Lokeshvara is a representation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara as the lord of the six realms of existence, and the personification of the Sanskrit mantra “om mani padme hum”. The name translates to “Six-Syllable Lord of the World”.
Atisa (982–1054 AD) was a Buddhist religious leader and master. He was one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism in Asia, flowing from Tibet to Sumatra.
This painting depicts the abbots of Ngor monastery, which follows the teachings of the Sakya school. This particular painting depicts Yang Zin Khon Shagpel, Seventh Abbot of Ngar Monastery. Tibetan Buddhism assigns exceptional prestige and reverence to abbots, who were seen as empowered to transmit the pure teachings of the Buddha; on occasions the most revered were accepted as the living embodiments of enlightenment. Founded in 1429, Ngor monastery quickly became a center of excellence for painting, initially produced under the direction of Nepalese master artists. By the sixteenth century, influences from Chinese painting began appearing, as seen here in the treatment of the throne and drapery. In the upper and framing registers is the Sakya order lineage, and in the lower register are protective and auspicious deities.
The imagery on this chest suggests that it served as an altar placed before a wrathful deity such as Mahakala in a protective shrine (gonthang), Ceremonial utensils would have been stored inside it and arranged on the lid during ritual enactment. Set within a sea of blood, the scene on the chest features demons bearing gory offerings and others dismembering the dead with flaying knives, while dogs and vultures tear at the corpses. Attended by a tiger, a camel, elephants, and mules, the demons approach the central offering a large decaying head. The head supports objects related to the five senses (equated with the five desires)-eyes for sight, a damaru drum for sound, a nose for sunell, a tongue for taste, and a heart for touch.
Epilogue
This museum is vast, requiring at least a week to thoroughly explore its artifacts, photographs, and paintings.
I spent two days there, yet I found myself rushing through the exhibits. I took photographs of the signage and plaques to examine them more closely at home. This article aims to assist visitors in preparing for their visit to the museum. I extend my gratitude to America for providing an abundance of knowledge to millions of individuals around the globe.
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