This article is a continuation of my previous article, Greek Civilization– Cradle of Europe, and is completely based on the little knowledge I could gather from seeing the great British Museum in London. This article is about the origin of civilization in Europe. I spent the most precious, happiest, and most memorable three days of my entire life in this museum. The first European civilization was Minoan, and thereafter it was taken over by Mycenaean civilization. Contemporary civilizations of that period were Egyptian, Indus, Chinese, Babylonian, and Assyrian.
I had the rare opportunity to visit the British Museum in London in April 2023, and I was breathless to see the exhibits. The European civilization had been unknown to me, as I only had heard or read about the history (in theory) of Europe from the second millennium.
A staggering galaxy of galleries showcases ancient artifacts from civilizations around the world that have existed on Earth to date. I spent three full days here, and I think I might still miss a few galleries. I think no other museum can so responsibly have rare collections of the same depth, breadth, beauty, and significance for generations to come. This mammoth collection must be a heaven and Mecca for history lovers.
The Minoans
The Minoans existed during 2600–1400 BC. They ate fish, grains, fruits, herbs, and honey. Men wore loincloths, and women wore skirts. They were master craftsmen of jewelry and other items, and used stone tools in their daily lives and architecture. The Minoans lived in large palace-like structures with large courts, colonnades, and ceilings. They had large homes, including bathrooms with running water and waste systems, and their homes were typically filled with luxury items like jewelry and finely painted pottery. They were known for their vibrant frescoes, which depicted scenes such as bull-leaping, processions, and feasts. Their pottery was often decorated with scenes of marine life. They exported agricultural products and luxury crafts in exchange for raw metals, which were difficult to obtain on Crete. Minoan religion was virtually monotheistic. The Minoan civilization came to an end around 1400 BC, probably due to natural disasters and the rise of the Mycenaeans. The exact cause of the collapse is unknown, but some theories include: enemy attack, internal conflict, natural disasters, and population movement.
Arthur Evans discovered that a colorful and sophisticated civilization had existed on Crete Island, the southern island of Greece, during 2600–1400 BC. He named it Minoan after Minos, the legendary king of the island. The Minoan culture was characterised by the dominance of the great palaces : Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia, and Kato Zakro (all in Crete) have been excavated, and others may have existed.
While the palace-based economy linked Minoan Crete to civilizations of the Near East and Egypt, Minoan achievements particularly influenced the Aegean islands (sea) and the Greek mainland. Cretan artistic traditions included the production of fine pottery, fresco painting, the creation of small-scale sculptures in faience, bronze, and ivory, and accomplished miniature work on sealstones and jewelry. Such craftsmanship was widely admired and exported, and it laid the foundations for future Mycenaean art.
Minoans were not Greek, and their language remains unknown. Their dominant position in the eastern Mediterranean may partly have depended on power at sea. Ultimately though, the Greek mainland’s Mycenaeans were to prove stronger, and came to control the society, which was the source of so much of their cultural inheritance.
One of the earliest evidences for settlement in Crete comes from Knosses in the Neolithic period, from about 7000 BC. During the early Bronze Age, the number of settlements grew rapidly: some became fairly large, and at sites such as Vassiliki in east Crete there were buildings of considerable architectural elaboration.
From the time of their foundation, about 1700 BC, the palaces stood at the centre of flourishing towns, and in the middle and late Bronze Age, a complex hierarchy of sites evolved all over the island. These included towns, such as Gournia or Palaikastro, where important buildings may have been local governors residences: country houses, a particular feature of the Late Minoan landscape, with the evidence for processes such as wine and oil production and storage of the Minoan economy and sanctuary sites, sometimes in remote locations.
After the destruction that effected many sites in about 1450 BC, the fall of Knosses (city name), traditionally
dated some seventy five years later, the island continued to flourish as part of the Mycenaean sphere of influence. Chania in West Crete seems to have gained particular prominence. At the end of Bronze age, in the 12th century, the population moved to inaccessible upland areas that were readily defensible, presumably in response to a threat from the sea.
Minoan religion – It is difficult to establish the nature of Minoan deity or deities. The organization of religious life is also unclear, though the palaces probably played a dominant role.
The names of some Minoan deities appear on the Knosses Linear B tablets (language) of the Mycenaean period, and some cretan gods and goddesses are named in later Greek writings, showing the legacy of Minoan cults in Mycenaean and later Greek religion.
The places of worship are identified as mountain peak sanctuaries, sacred caves, and shrines within the palaces, and some other buildings could be identified as worship places on account of their specific element in the layout. Areas of rituals are also associated with some tombs.
Votive offerings were made, which include fine pottery, bronze and terracotta figurines, stone vases, and sometimes tools and weapons. Certain religious symbols are found in these offerings, such as double axes and stylised bull’s horns.
Foreign contacts – The geographical position of Crete favoured the foreign contacts, which helped Minoans get the materials, especially metals, which the island lacked. They had contacts with Cyclades (a group of Greek islands in the Aegean Sea) and the Greek mainland and Near East, Aigina and Rhodes, Egypt, the Syro-Palestinian coast, and Cyprus. An eighth-century BC text from Mari (Assyrian civilization period) on the Europhatus river mentions imported Cretan weapons, textiles, pottery, and sandals. During the period of the second palaces (1700–1450 BC), Minoan influence was widespread throughout the Aegean Sea, with many islands exhibiting elements of Minoan lifestyle and the Greek mainland extensively adopting Cretan arts and crafts. Minoan style frescoes in Egypt, and Egyptian tomb-painting showing Cretans testify to the longer relations of Minoans Crete.
Burying – There were many types of Minoan burials on Crete, with cave burials, chamber tombs, or circular tholos tombs all popular on different parts of the island. Burial was a reflection of life. Bodies were interred with their everyday possessions as well as special funerary items.
The Minoans had two types of burials: primary and secondary. Primary burials took place immediately after death, while secondary burials involved removing the bones and placing them in rooms or some containers, as below.
Aigina Treasure is a rich collection of jewellery and a single golden cup. Although believed to have been found on island of Aigina, it seems largely to be of Minoan Cretan workmanship, perhaps made between about 1850-1550 BC. The treasure may have belonged to members of Minoan family or families living on the island, and may have been buried with them. Now it is kept in this museum and has been fascinating to scholars and the world since it was first discovered in 1891.
The workmanship of treasure shows a high degree of skill and sophistication, perhaps pointing to origin for some of the jewellery on Crete itself, though it could have been produced by immigrant Cretan craftsmen on Aigina. Most of the pieces are of sheet gold, beaten out thinly and then shaped, either in some mould or over a former. Some also use gold wire. Most of the semi-precious stones used occurred in Aegean area, but amethyst probably came from Egypt, and metal lapis lazuli came via a long route from Afghanistan. Although Minoan style
predominate, foreign influences can be seen on them also : for example, the nature of god pendent has some Egyptian lotus-flowers.
The Mycenaeans
The Mycenaeans were a warlike civilization in Greece that lived from around 1230 BC to 1100 BC. Their majority of lifestyle was inherited from Minoans. The Mycenaeans were active traders with cultures in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Anatolia (Turkey), and Spain. They exported olive oil, wine, and other goods, and imported precious metals and materials. The Mycenaeans were fierce warriors who conquered neighboring kingdoms. They were known for their bronze axes, which have been found as far north as Ireland and Cornwall in southwest England. Mycenaean women wore bolero shirts and skirts, while men wore loin cloths or tunics. The Mycenaeans were great engineers who built bridges, fortification walls, beehive-shaped tombs, and drainage and irrigation systems.
Upper-class Mycenaean men enjoyed sports like wrestling, boxing, chariot racing, and bull-leaping. Mycenaean homes were probably built of mudbrick, while upper-class homes were perhaps built of ashlar, or cut stone. The Mycenaeans recorded their triumphs in two different forms of writing script, Linear A and Linear B. Like many things in the Mycenaean society, housing for the Mycenaeans was largely dependent on class. Since the Mycenaeans had a strict social hierarchy, the king and other leaders lived in elaborate palaces. The workers, however, lived in smaller homes closer to the fields where they worked.
The fall of the Mycenaean civilization led to a Dark Age in Greece that lasted for several centuries. During this time, most cities were abandoned, the population declined, and literacy and culture were lost. When the Dark Age started and the Mycenaean Greeks were leaving their habitat, they could not preserve the language Linear B, and hence illiteracy was rampant. Due to this, no records are available about this period, and so it is called the Dark Age (name debatable).
This culture flourished on Greek mainland in the late Bronze period, from about 1600 to 1100 BC. The name derives from the site of Mycenae, where the culture was first recognized.
The earliest phase, the Shaft Grave era (a deep, rectangular pit with a shaft that runs down into the ground), was characterised by rich burials, their contents strongly influenced by Minoan culture. In 14th century BC the Mycenaeans built palaces similar to Minoans but characteristically centered around great hall. At this time too, the huge fortifications were first constructed. Three of these citadels were in Mycenae, Tiryns and Midea, dominate the Argive plain in the north-east Peloponnese, which was the heart of Mycenaean culture, but rich palaces have also been found at Pylos in the south-west Peloponnese and at Thebes.
Clay tablets from the palaces inscribed in Linear B script show that Mycenaeans spoke Greek. The presence of Linear B tablets at Knossos in its latest phase is evidence that Mycenaeans, growing in power and prosperity, took control of Crete around 1450 BC. Therefore, they moved into previously Minoan spheres of influence, trading widely with lands such as Egypt, Near East and Italy.
The discovery of Troy and Mycenae – The credit of discovery of Mycenaean culture belongs to largely German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, who, motivated by a desire to prove that poems of Homer were based on historical facts, excavated at Troy in a number of seasons between 1870 and 1890 and at Vin in 1876.
At Troy, Schliemann, identified a small but strongly fortified city in the heart of many layered mounds as Troy of the Trojan War. This city, Troy II, is now recognized as dated from the early Bronze Age (2500–2300 BC). The relatively small and isolated communities of mainland Greece at this time could not possibly have mounted a military campaign on any scale.
While excavating at Mycenae, he uncovered the rich Shaft Graves (a deep, rectangular pit with a shaft that runs down into the ground), which he felt might be burials of Agamemnon (Hero of Troy expedition) and his entourage, who were killed, according to the story, on their return from Troy. In fact, these burials date from 1600–1450 BC. Their wealth provides a link between the rise of Mycenae in Middle Bronze Age, a period for which little evidence survives from the site, and flourishing 14th and 13th
century BC, the period of maximum Mycenae expansion. It is towards the end of this period that a plausible background might be sought for the story of a massed Greek expedition against Troy.
Mycenaean religion – Linear B tablets, inscribed with an early form of Greek, reveal that Mycenaeans worshipped a large number of gods and goddesses : the palace records list offerings made to them, sometimes at specified sacred sites. Many of the names of Classical Greek deities were already recognizable in Mycenaean times, including Zeus, Poseidon, Hera, Athena and Artemis.
A group of large and terracotta painted in dark brown and equipped with such attributes as hammers and swords were found in this area identified as a cult centre at Mycenae and may well represent deities. Appropriately for warrior society, the Mycenaeans appear to have worshipped a warrior goddess. She is known here, painted on a miniature fresco from a cult centre at Mycenae, wearing an elaborate boars tusk helmet and carrying a baby griffin in her arms.
She is seen in other representations, such as on the seal-stone below in his case, wearing a helmet and carrying a figure of eight shield and two swords. A mythical creature with the head and wings of an eagle and the body of a lion, typically depicted with pointed ears and with the eagle’s legs taking the place of the forelegs.
Mycenaeans abroad – Evidence of Mycenaean activity abroad comes from many lands of the Mediterranean. Quantities of Mycenaean pottery have been found in Italy and Sicily to the west and along trading routes to the east. Mycenaean vases, including many of the Pictorial Style, flooded into Cyprus, and reached sites along the Syro-Palestinian coast and Egypt. Wrecks of ancient trading ships, such as those that sank in Uluburun just off the south coast of modern Turkey around 1300 BC, demonstrate the riches and variety of trade in the Mediterranean in the late Bronze Age.
The Mycenaeans established the settlements abroad, colonising islands such as Rhodes and establishing trading posts on the coast of Asia Minor, notably Miletus. Tell el-Amarna in Egypt, the capital of Pharaoh Akhenaten, yielded not only large amounts of Mycenaean pottery but also evidence that the Mycenaeans may have fought abroad as mercenaries. A battle-scene painted on a papyrus shows Libyans fighting the army of Pharaoh, among whose warriors are foot soldiers who appear from the helmets to be Mycenaeans.
Burying – The Mycenaeans, like Minoans, believed in the afterlife and buried their dead with grave goods that reflected the deceased’s social status. The grave goods of the elite included gilded weapons, masks, jewelry, tools, and vessels made of gold, amber, and silver. The grave goods of the lower class were not made with these luxury materials.
The Mycenaeans prepared the body of the deceased to lie in state, and then a procession was held to the resting place. The procession was usually led by family or friends of the deceased.
This is the treasury of Atreus (tomb of Agamemnon), a beehive, or tholos, tomb built around 1350 to 1250 BC at Mycenae, Greek mainland.
This is one surviving architectural structure of the Mycenaean civilization. It is a pointed dome built of overhanging masonry work and polished on top. The diameter of the tomb is 50 feet. Monolithic doorway weighs 120 tons and is 16×3 feet. The small chamber cut out of rock contained the burials, and the main chamber was used for ritual rites.. Two engaged columns (now in the British Museum) had the artwork frescoes in Minoan style. According to legend, Mycenae was the capital of Agamemnon, the Achaean king who sacked the city of Troy. It was discovered in 1840.
Epilogue
In contrast to the well-known civilizations of the Indus Valley, Egypt, Sumer, and Babylon, the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures are less frequently discussed. It was fortunate and intriguing for me to witness the ancient artifacts of European civilization firsthand. My prior theoretical understanding of European civilization was validated and reinforced by this experience. Interestingly, although the Mycenaeans disappeared from the historical landscape of Greece, the onset of the Greek Dark Age ensued, during which their cultural legacy endured.
As the Dark Age commenced when the Mycenaean Greeks departed from their territories, they were unable to maintain the Linear B script, resulting in widespread illiteracy. Consequently, there are no surviving records from this era, leading to its designation as the Dark Age, a term that remains subject to debate. Towards the conclusion of this period, the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, transitioning from sounds to written symbols. This linguistic development spurred a resurgence in trade and economic activities. Additionally, the introduction of iron marked a significant advancement. The conclusion of the Dark Ages coincided with the composition of one of the earliest literary epics, Homer’s Iliad. The Olympic Games, which began in 776 BC, also emerged during this time. Thus, I assert that these ancient civilizations served as the foundation for Greek civilization, much like the Indus Valley did for India.
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