This comprehensive account is largely derived from the Metropolitan Museum, located in mid-Manhattan, North America. I examined the informational signage and plaques, conducted further research online, and reflected on the significance and intent of the extensive collection housed within this esteemed institution. I contend that the study of history must be approached with a philosophical perspective, as we have not personally experienced the past; thus, we must interpret the meanings behind the artifacts presented in the museum. The Islamic art gallery within this museum ranks among the largest, following the Egyptian and European galleries. In my view, this collection surpasses that of the British Museum in richness.
The rise of Islam on the Arabian Peninsula in the early seventh century and its diffusion to neighboring regions had a major impact on the arts of the greater Middle East, the Mediterranean, and South Asia. As new cultural and political landscapes evolved, courts and cities across this vast geographic area became interconnected centers of artistic activity and exchange for the next one thousand years.
Diverse cultures, religions, and peoples have always coexisted in Islamic lands, and the ancient heritage, multiethnic population, and linguistic makeup of each region have been integral to their identities. From Islam’s initial emergence in Late Antiquity (7th century in this context) to its subsequent encounters in Iran, Spain, and India and expansion across Africa, China, and the Malay Archipelago, Islamic culture grew to be as varied as the worlds it reached. Today, we think of the arts of Islam as expressions of diversity whose visual styles are widely shared.
The artistic expressions that developed in connection with Islamic spirituality are distinguished by their inclination to adorn surfaces with floral or geometric patterns—inspired in part by nature and ideals of paradise-as well as a visual language of abstraction and heavenly allusion. Figural images are discouraged in the Islamic religious sphere but present outside it, including as decoration or in the context of literary and scientific manuscript illustration. Highest among the arts is calligraphy, its prestige closely connected to transcription of the holy Qur’an. Lavishly copied in beautiful scripts, the Qur’an’s sacred verses appear widely in architecture and art.
Beyond the religious sphere, an array of rich and vibrant art styles reflect the wealth of independent creative tradition that have flourished throughout the Islamic world. In modern times, artists continue to draw inspiration from traditions and cultures of the past while creating new modes of expression, often in response to current geopolitics and social transformations, as well as personal concerns.
Arab Lands and Iran under the Umayyads and Abbasids (661-1258)
The Muslim calendar begins in 622, when the Prophet Muhammad led his followers on the hijra, or flight, from Mecca to Medina. After the Prophet’s death in 632, his successors, called caliphs, extended the Islamic conquests from the Arabian Peninsula to the neighboring Byzantine and Sasanian empires. By 714, the Muslim empire stretched from Spain to North West of India (modern Pakistan).
The Umayyads were an Arab clan who ruled the Islamic world as caliphs, or Islamic leaders, from 661 to 750. Caliph Uthman (644-56 AD) ordered the codification of the Quran, which stimulated book production and the evolution of Arabic calligraphy. Under the Umayyads, a distinct Islamic artistic identity gradually emerged. Early Islamic art synthesized forms inherited from Late Antique (7th century in this context) and Byzantine Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean and Sasanian Iran. Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (684-705 AD) established Arabic as the language of polity and administration. He ordered Arabic script to replace images of the ruler on coinage. By 715, a standard mosque plan based on the layout of the Prophet Muhammad’s house was established.
The Abbasids ( rule 750–1258, 1261–1517) overthrew the Umayyads in 750 and founded a new capital, Baghdad, in Iraq in 762. New styles and techniques characterized Abbasid art, including pottery with luster glaze or Chinese-inspired shapes. The influence of Abbasid wares and their ornament spread far beyond Iraq to Egypt, Iran, North Africa, and Spain.
The Abbasids at Samarra
They were the descendants of Mohammad’s uncle. Under the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258), Iraq became the focal point of Islamic political, economic, and artistic life. In 836, the Abbasids established an alternate capital north of their first capital, Baghdad, called Samarra. There they built impressive mosques and palaces and a distinctive Abbasid style emerged that had a marked impact for centuries to come. Ceramics with new glazing techniques, such as luster painting, circulated widely, and new methods of stucco (fine plaster) and wood carving appeared in Samarra, particularly the highly original beveled style (slanted relief, symmetrical design, and vegetal forms). It was used to decorate the walls of buildings and on wood panels, but artists soon adapted its motifs to stone carving, pottery, and glass. Luster painting and the “beveled style” subsequently spread from Iraq to other centers of production in Egypt, Syria, Iran, and Spain. In cosmopolitan Iraq, artists imitated Chinese Tang- dynasty (618-907) ceramics, and made elaborate carvings in teak imported from South and Southeast Asia.
From 1258-1261 Mongols ruled. They were from Central Asia regions and were non Muslims. They invaded Iraq in 1258 AD, captured Baghdad, killed about a million Iraqis, burnt mosques, houses, libraries.
After Mongols for a short period of 26 years Safavids ruled up to 1534. Being for short time there was none of their impact on Iraq.
The Early Safavids (1501-1508)
In the early sixteenth century, the Safavids, a dynasty descended from the Sufi shaikhs of Ardabil in northwestern Iran, united eastern and western Iran. The Safavids, who ruled Iran from 1501, used persuasion and coercion to impose Twelver Shiaism as the state religion. Twelver Shia Islam is a branch of Shia Islam that is based on the belief that there were twelve imams after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In 1501, Ismail I (1501-24 AD) wrested control of Azerbaijan from the Aq Quyunlu Turkmen with the help of the Qizilbash (Turkmen warriors) and was crowned in Tabriz as the first Safavid shah. Upon his accession, Twelver Shia Islam became the official religion of the Iranian state. Royal patronage of the arts focused on illustrated manuscripts and exquisite portable objects.
Ismail’s son, Tahmasp (1524-76 AD), came to the throne at age ten, having studied painting with the Tabriz master Sultan Muhammad. An inspired patron of the book arts, Tahmasp assembled an atelier of artists from the two most important centers of Persian painting-Turkmen Tabriz and Timurid Herat. The synthesis of the artistic styles of these two cities led to the development of a new Safavid mode of painting. The most renowned manuscript from Tahmasp’s reign is a now-dispersed copy of the Shahnama (Book of Kings), of which twelve folios are on display here in this musem. Designs generated in the royal painting workshop (kitabkhana) also inspired fine textiles, carpets, and other courtly objects.
In 1534 Iraq is conquered by the Ottoman Empire. Conquest of Ottoman empire was win of Sunni over Shia majority Iraq. Safavids and Ottomom empires coexisted and were in continuous confrontations. In 1639 large eastern region of Safavids was annexexed by Ottomon.
Safavid Iran under Shah Abbas the Great (1587-1629 AD)
Shah Abbas I left an indelible mark on the cultural and artistic heritage of Iran. To restore Iran’s broken economy, he encouraged commerce with Europe, utilizing Armenian traders as agents. In 1598, Abbas established a new capital at Isfahan. The royal complex, which is centered around a vast square known as the maidan, comprises a palace, a modest royal mosque, a grand congregational mosque, and an opulent bazaar. These structures remain some of the most renowned monuments in Iran today. The decoration of the shah’s buildings stimulated a new artistic style in which elements such as large-scale lotus blossoms and looping vine scrolls predominate. They appear in all media, from ceramic tiles to carpets and manuscript illuminations. In the book arts, the supremacy of illustrated epics and romantic texts was challenged by the rise of the single-page paintings and drawings made for inclusion in albums. Interest in portraiture grew and artistic patronage broadened to encompass wealthy members of the urban population. In the first half of Shah Abbas reign, a graceful, calligraphic style characterized the work of painter Riza-yi Abbasi (active 1587-1635) and his followers, while after 1600, a figural mode featuring larger, heavier forms developed in Isfahan and other centers.
Iran after the Safavids, (1722-1900 AD)
In 1722, Afghan invaders ended Safavid rule in Iran. Nadir Shah Afshar, an Iranian general, rose to power and, despite his ineffective government, temporarily improved the Iranian economy by sacking the Mughal treasury in Delhi in 1739. Under his rule, artistic production largely followed late Safavid Europeanizing stylistic conventions. After his death, no single ruler held sway over all of Iran.
Karim Khan Zand (1749–79 AD) ruled from Shiraz in the south, where artists produced lifesize paintings, manuscript illustrations, painted lacquer wares, and enamels. Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar ended Zand rule in 1794, and his nephew, Fath ‘Ali Shah, succeeded him in 1797-1834. He was the nephew of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, who was assassinated in 1797. Fath Ali Shah commissioned many portraits of himself to emphasize his masculinity. Under Muhammad Shah (1834-48 AD), patronage of oil painting declined in favor of small-scale painting on lacquer.
The fourth Qajar ruler, Nasir al-Din Shah (1848-96 AD), son of Mohammad Khan Qajar, embarked on an intensive program of military and cultural reform, establishing Iran’s first modern, European- style institution of higher learning, the Dar al-Funun, in 1851. Its curriculum included European academic painting and, after the 1840s, the use of photographs as models for painting.
Central Asia under the Timurids and Shaibanids, 1370-1599
After becoming the regional ruler of Transoxiana (current Turkey, Uzbekistan and parts of Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan) in about 1370, Timur (Tamerlane, 1370-1405 AD) conquered all of Central Asia, greater Iran, and Iraq, as well as southern Russia and the Indian subcontinent, founding the Timurid dynasty. Timur and members of his family built palaces, mosques, madrasas, and shrines in his capital Samarqand and other cities throughout Central Asia. The courtly workshops at Herat (city in Afghanistan) produced exceptional works of art in a range of media, including exquisite manuscripts under Baisunghur (1397-1434), grandson of Timur. Later in the century, Sultan Husain Baiqara (1438-1506), the last effective Timurid ruler, gathered exceptional poets and artists to the Herat court, including the renowned painter Bihzad and master calligrapher Sultan Ali Mashhadi.
By 1507, Muhammad Shaibani (1510) had ousted the Timurid rulers from Khurasan and Transoxiana, taking Herat and Samarqand. The Shaibanids remained in control of much of former Timurid Central Asia until the end of the sixteenth century. Despite the shifting regional politics, Shaibanid rulers adopted many of the cultural and artistic traditions established by the Timurids in Herat and Central Asia.
Images of Humans and Animals in Islamic Art
One of the most common questions in Islamic art concerns if the representation of human figures is banned. The Hadith (the “Traditions” of the Prophet Muhammad) allows the representation in two ways: It should emphasize that representation should depict God as the exclusive creator, and second, the art should not show that the Prophet is being worshipped as an idol.
Following these hadith, the human and animal figures often appear on ceramics or metal vessels, where they may play both an ornamental and iconographic role.
Writing has enjoyed supremacy in Islamic culture for centuries due to its intimate connection to the Divine Revelation, the Prophet Muhammad, and the Quran. As the language of the Quran, Arabic was regarded as the literal word of God and a visual manifestation of God’s message.
The sophistication, versatility, and adaptability of the Arabic letters to embellish various surfaces in different media and endow them with meaning remain unparalleled, offering endless possibilities for visual expression to calligraphers and artists over the centuries. Writing in the Islamic world appears in myriad forms and styles, ranging from elegant and refined to decorative and abstract, from eminently readable to barely legible. Since the mid-1950s, modern and contemporary artists from the region have embraced these very qualities, using Arabic writing in its array of forms to express political, social, personal, and emotional concerns.
Under the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258), Iraq became the focal point of Islamic political, economic, and artistic life. Ceramics with new glazing techniques, such as luster painting, circulated widely, and new methods of stucco (plaster) and wood carving appeared in Samarra, particularly the highly original “beveled style.” It was used to decorate the walls of buildings and on wood panels, but artists soon adapted its motifs to stone carving, pottery, and glass. Luster painting and the “beveled style” subsequently spread from Iraq to other centers of production in Egypt, Syria, Iran, and Spain. In cosmopolitan Iraq, artists imitated Chinese Tang- dynasty (618-907) ceramics, and made elaborate carvings in teak imported from South and Southeast Asia.
Millefion Technique is a kind of ornamental glass in which a number of glass rods of different sizes and colors are fused together and cut into sections which form various patterns, typically embedded in colorless transparent glass to make items such as paperweights, foot scrubber.
Ceramics such as this bowl are among the first examples to incorporate calligraphy as the main element of decoration. The Iraqi potters of the ninth century attempted to emulate the luminous quality and hard body of Chinese whitewares by using a tin-opacified white glaze. The Arabic word ghubta (happiness) is repeated twice in cobalt blue at the center.
The Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1260), also known as the Ayyubid Sultanate, was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Saladin was proclaimed as the first Sultan of Egypt by the Abbasid Caliphate. I will not go further into details of this dynasty but focus on the art displayed in Metro museum.
Enameled and gilded glass originated in Syria and reached its peak during the latter part of Ayyubid rule and the initial century of Mamluk authority. Glass artisans surmounted significant technical challenges to refine their craft. While Cairo served as the imperial capital, Syria remained a prominent hub for enameled glass production. By the fifteenth century, however, patronage declined, leading to a shift in production to Europe. The Mosque Lamp for the Mausoleum presented here is attributed to an Amir from Cairo, Egypt, during the Mamluk era (1250-1517), specifically shortly after 1285. The inscriptions on this lamp reveal that it was commissioned for Aidakin’s mausoleum (turba), which still stands in Cairo. Mamluk amirs often incorporated emblems associated with their ceremonial roles at court, embellishing the items and structures they funded. In this case, the design featuring two gold crossbows on a red shield represents the role of bow-keeper.
The Ghaznavids
The Ghaznavid dynasty (977-1186), whose territory, at its greatest, extended from Afghanistan to northern India. The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin. It ruled from 977 to 1186. The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin upon his succession to the rule of Ghazna after the death of his father-in-law, Alp Tigin, who was an ex-general of the Samanid Empire from Balkh. Sabuktigin’s son, Mahmud of Ghazni. The Ghaznavids greatly admired Persian culture and actively promoted Persian literary and artistic traditions. The reign of Mahmud (998-1030) is considered the Chaznavid heyday. After 1040, the Seljuqs conquered their western territory, and in 1151 the Ghurids took the capital, Ghazni, although Ghaznavids continued to rule from Lahore for a few decades. Finally it fell to Seljuq Empire.
The Samanids
The empire was centred in northeastern Iran and Central Asia, from 819 to 999. They ruled under Abbasid suzerainty. They considered themselves to be descendants of the Sasanian Empire (Impirial Iranian dynasty from 224-651 AD). The assemblage of glass represents a range of obects-cups, a lamp, vessel for pouring, and mail boles belongs to Samanids dynasty.
Iran under the Seljuqs, 1040-1194 AD
The Seljuq empire were Turko-Pesian. They converted to Islam in the tenth century. They initially entered the Abbasid political sphere to defend the frontier territories of the Samanids and Ghaznavids, but soon asserted themselves, defeating the Ghaznavids in 1040. By 1055, the Seljuqs had captured Baghdad. After the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, in which the Byzantine emperor was defeated, part of the Seljuq tribe also settled in Anatolia, expanded from Anatolia, the Levant and from Central Asia in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south.
The Seljuqs established capitals at Isfahan, Hamadan, and Rayy in Iran. As victors over the Shia Buyids, the Seljuqs sponsored a network of madrasas (theological colleges) to train the state’s administrators and religious scholars and restore Sunni ascendancy. The most famous was the Madrasa Nizamiyya in Baghdad, founded by the great vizier Nizam al-Mulk (1018-1092) in 1067. Seljuq interest in Persian culture led to a renaissance of Persian-language literature, a taste for figural imagery, and the revival of earlier royal protocols.
The Seljuq rulers sponsored many architectural projects, including major additions to the Great Mosque of Isfahan and the immense Tomb of Sultan Sanjar (1097- 1157 AD) in Merv, modern Turkmenistan. Luxury metalwork and ceramics flourished under Seljuq rule as a result of the rise in the wealth of the urban population.
In many ways, ceramics in medieval Iran played a similar role in everyday life as objects made of plastic do today. Ceramics were more robust than glass and far less expensive than metal wares. They could be thrown on a wheel, molded, or built up in an almost infinite variety of shapes and a wide range of sizes and decorated using various techniques, from molding unglazed clay to painting elaborate scenes illustrating episodes from popular poetry. Simple furniture, toys, game pieces, tableware, figurines, and even large clay sculptures as well as a vast variety of what might best be described as decorative knickknacks attest to the powerful cultural and economic role played by ceramics.
This museum features a typical ewer (jug) from the Seljuq period of Iran, dating back to the 12th century, adorned with a calligraphic band. The incisions within the calligraphic bands reveal traces of silver, marking this ewer as one of the earliest instances of the 12th-century advancement in metalwork inlay that emerged in eastern Iran and Afghanistan. The inscriptions express good wishes in Arabic for the owner. Additionally, there is a bottle with a sprinkler top from Khurasan, Iran, also from the Seljuq period, specifically the latter half of the 12th century. Crafted from a quaternary alloy, this piece is cast, engraved, and inlaid with silver and copper. Bottles of this design were typically used to hold bath oils. The protruding knobs on its sides (prunts) were designed to provide a secure grip in case the bottle became slippery. The decorative style featuring birds and the inlaid embellishments indicate a 12th-century origin. The inscription consists of abbreviated Arabic words, extending well wishes to the owner.
A component of a lamp or incense burner originating from Iran, dating back to the 10th-11th century, is crafted from brass and features techniques such as casting, piercing, chasing, and engraving. The Arabic inscription translates to: “Well-being… and blessing, happiness and prosperity, happiness and peace.” Additionally, a bowl adorned with a stylized bird, also from Iran, dates to the 11th century and is made of earthenware. It showcases incised decoration achieved through the application of white slip and color glazes beneath a transparent glaze, commonly referred to as “Amul ware.” This term is derived from a town in northern Iran where early collectors acquired several examples of this ceramic style, although the precise location of its production remains unknown. The wares are characterized by a thick creamy slip that is incised to expose the reddish body underneath, accentuated with green pigments, and finished with a transparent glaze.
The invention in Seljuq Iran of a composite ceramic body called stonepaste, formed of silica-rich clay mixed with powdered quartz or other minerals, led to the creation of an incredible range of ceramic objects, from game pieces and tableware to simple furniture and even sculpture.
The incense burner originates from Iran and dates back to the Seljuq period (1040-1196). During this era, zoomorphic incense burners gained significant popularity. This particular example, shaped like a lion, stands out due to its impressive size, the intricacy of its engraved decorations, and the extensive information conveyed through the Arabic calligraphic inscriptions adorning its surface. These inscriptions include the names of both the patron and the artist, along with the date of its creation. The lion’s head is designed to be removable, allowing for the placement of coal and incense within, while the body and neck feature perforations to facilitate the escape of fragrant smoke. This lion would undoubtedly have complemented a grand palatial environment.
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, metal workers in Khurasan (modern Iran and Afghanistan) transformed brass, a humble base metal, into lavishly ornamented luxury objects. The main production center was Herat during the Ghurid period (early eleventh century-1215). After 1100, forms of hammered sheet brass increasingly replaced those of cast brass, and inlaid decoration in contrasting metals, such as silver and copper, gained popularity. Initially, inlay was limited to frames or inscriptions, but eventually it covered most of the surface. Some of these objects were made for princes, but many were sold at market to, or commissioned for, a newly prosperous middle class. The Mongol invasion of 1220 dispersed metalworkers westward, eventually to join workshops in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Anatolia.
Spain, North Africa, and the Western Mediterranean, 8th-19th Centuries
Muslim Spain, historically referred to as Al-Andalus, encompasses the regions of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal, Morocco, typically South Western Europe) that were governed by Islamic rule from the early 8th century until the fall of Granada in 1492. The Muslim conquest commenced in 711 CE when Tariq ibn Ziyad led his forces across the Strait of Gibraltar, successfully defeating the Visigothic kingdom of Spain. Over the subsequent centuries, Al-Andalus evolved into a vibrant hub of knowledge, art, and culture, epitomizing the Golden Age of Muslim Spain, which persisted until the Reconquista culminated in the capture of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella.
In 756 CE, Abd al-Rahman I, a member of the Umayyad dynasty, fled to Spain after the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate during the Abbasid Revolution. Seeking refuge from the new regime, Abd al-Rahman established himself in Spain and founded an independent emirate, effectively severing ties with the Abbasid Caliphate. By declaring himself Emir of Cordoba, Abd al-Rahman I initiated a new era for Muslim Spain. He effectively founded an independent Umayyad emirate that no longer acknowledged the authority of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. This established a distinct identity for Al-Andalus, separate from the influences of Abbasid rule.
The city rapidly evolved into a prominent center of culture and politics, drawing scholars, artists, and architects from throughout the Islamic world, who made substantial contributions to various disciplines, including science, medicine, philosophy, and the arts. By the early 11th century, the once-powerful Umayyad Caliphate in Spain began to disintegrate due to internal conflicts and political turmoil. Subsequent leaders faced challenges in maintaining authority, resulting in power struggles, territorial conflicts, and a weakening of central governance. This disintegration ultimately led to the caliphate’s dissolution around 1031 CE, which facilitated the rise of several independent states known as taifa kingdoms. Granada, Seville, and Toledo emerged as significant centers within these kingdoms. Despite the political fragmentation, these regions made notable advancements in philosophy, medicine, and mathematics.
The late 11th century represented a pivotal moment in the history of Muslim Spain, characterized by the emergence of two formidable North African dynasties: the Almoravids and the Almohads. In light of the disintegration of the taifa kingdoms and the encroaching threat of the Christian Reconquista, these dynasties aimed to consolidate the Muslim regions of the Iberian Peninsula and restore order.
The capture of Granada on January 2, 1492, signified the conclusion of nearly 800 years of Muslim governance in Spain. The Christian monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, initiated a military endeavor to seize the emirate, culminating in the Granada Campaign. The surrender of Granada was not solely a military setback; it also heralded a profound cultural transformation within Spain. Although the initial terms of capitulation assured the safeguarding of Muslim rights and properties, these commitments were soon disregarded, resulting in widespread persecution and coerced conversions.
Mamulk
The Mamluk sultanate (1250-1517) emerged from the Ayyubid state in Egypt and Syria. “Mamluk” is not a dynastic name, but an Arabic word meaning “owned,” used to describe elite soldiers of slave origin. In 1250, a group of officers overthrew the Ayyubid sultan in Egypt, establishing a new regime. The Mamluks elected sultans from among their ranks, continually renewed with young slaves. After receiving instruction in Arabic, Islam, and warfare, the recruits were freed and promoted within the Mamluk hierarchy.
The first decade of Mamluk rule was devoted to the consolidation of power. Baibars (1260-77 AD) defeated a major Mongol offensive and recaptured most of the remaining Crusader strongholds. Soon, the Mamluks controlled a vast empire, from southern Anatolia to Arabia, including Islam’s holy cities-Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem. Their capital, Cairo, became the economic and cultural center of the western Islamic world. The Mamluk “golden age” was the third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad (1309-41), after which the regime’s fortunes declined. The Black Death (1348-50) dealt a grim blow to the empire’s prosperity, followed by Timur’s crushing invasion of Syria in 1400. The reign of Sultan Qaitbay (1468–96) brought some improvement, but in 1517 the Mamluks finally succumbed to the Ottoman army.
The Rasulids of Yemen (1229-1454 AD)
The Rasulid family served as administrators during the period of Ayyubid control over Yemen. When the last Ayyubid governor departed, the Rasulids took control and continued to rule Yemen for more than two hundred years. From their capital in Taizz, they developed the port of Aden, profiting greatly from taxation of the lucrative Red Sea trade. With this wealth, they generously sponsored literature and scientific pursuits, built extensively, and commissioned luxury arts, including from Mamluk workshops.
Iran under the Ilkhans, 1256-1353
Mongol incursions into the eastern Islamic lands culminated in the conquest of Iran and, in 1258, the fall of the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258) and its capital, Baghdad. After gaining control over Iran, parts of Iraq, Syria, Anatolia, and the Caucasus, the Mongol military leader Hulegu (1256-65), grandson of Genghis Khan, established his own khanate centered in northwestern Iran. Subordinate to his brother Khubilai Khan in China, this branch of the Mongol dynasty came to be known as Ilkhans.
The Ilkhanids ruled Iran from 1256 until 1353, the court moving between the capitals of Tabriz, Sultaniyya, and Baghdad. In 1295, the Ilkhan Ghazan (1295- 1304) embraced Islam. Numerous mosques, tomb complexes, and Sufi shrines across Iran attest to Ilkhanid religious devotion.
Excavations at Takht-i Sulaiman (1275), a lavishly decorated summer palace, elucidated the secular world of the Ilkhanid court. Luster tiles inscribed with Persian poetry, textiles incorporating golden thread, and metalwork vessels inlaid with figural designs were among the arts patronized by the Ilkhanid elite. In the period of Mongol rule, a trading network opened across Asia, spurring an artistic efflorescence as a result of the movement of goods and people.
Bowl and covered jar belongs to Ilkhanid period (1206-1353), Iran in late 13th-early 14th century.
This jar exhibits a rare glaze type referred to as lajvardina, from the Persian word lajvard, or lapis lazuli (a deep blue colored stone containing gold inclusions). Their designs comprise small squares of gold leaf, carefully arranged into intricate patterns with delicate red and white overpainting. Production of this type of glazed ware is limited to the Ilkhanid period in Iran. And the luxurious nature of these examples suggests they were destined for wealthy patrons.
Tombstone belongs to Ilkhanid period (1206-1353), Iran in 1352 AD. Incorporating various styles of calligraphic script within its representation of an architectural niche, this tombstone is of historical as well as aesthetic interest. The text of its geometricizing kufic inscriptions include the profession of faith known as the Shahada and passages from the Quran. The curvilinear cursive inscriptions provide clues to its history. In the middle framing band are the name and titles of Shaikh Mahmud ibn Sada Muhammad, a leader of a religious brotherhood who “left this world” on the fourth of Muharram 753 / February 21, 1352. The artist’s signature, partly legible as “Niza[m]… Shihab,” is in the area below the niche.
Timur (Tamerlane, 1336-1405) conquered all of Central Asia, Iran, Iraq, and southern Russia, founding the Timurid dynasty. While Timur’s political capital was at Samarqand, princes of his family governed several other important centers. In western Iran, the southern city of Shiraz, controlled by Timur’s grandsons, was an important political and artistic center.
In the second half of the fifteenth century, Turkmen dynasties supplanted Timurid rule in western Iran. From their homelands in eastern Anatolia, the Qara Quyunlu (“Black Sheep”) Turkmen rapidly expanded their territory into Iraq and western Iran. Under the Qara Quyunlu, the city of Tabriz served as the primary political capital, but Shiraz and Baghdad remained important centers of artistic patronage. The sudden victory of the Aq Quyunlu sultan, Uzun Hasan, in 1467 displaced the Qara Quyunlu rulers. The Aq Quyunlu (“White Sheep”) Turkmen dynasty flourished in western Iran until the grandson of Uzun Hasan, Ismail Safavi, and his followers conquered Tabriz in 1501, and then the whole of Iran.
Turkmen and Timurid art, representative of Iranian court art in the fifteenth century, emerged under the auspices of the Timurids and subsequently the Turkmen dynasties in northwest Iran. This artistic movement was significantly influenced by the kitabkhana, which translates to “place of books” but functioned as a center for artistic creation. The remarkable paper works produced in these establishments, including lavishly illustrated volumes of history and poetry, introduced a novel style that would later give rise to three prominent court styles in subsequent Islamic periods across Iran, Turkey, and India. This style harmoniously integrated elements of Chinese aesthetics, such as landscapes and depictions of dragons, clouds, and fantastical creatures, with a fresh lyrical approach that celebrated images of poets, lovers, mystics, and even whimsical caricatures of grotesque demons. The intricate floral and vegetal patterns, often referred to as arabesques, reached their zenith during this era and were extensively employed in the illumination of manuscripts, bookbinding, metalwork, ceramics, silk textiles, and carpets of the fifteenth century.
The folio presented here originates from the Khavarannama (The Book of the East) authored by Ibn Husam during the years 1476-86, a notable work from the Timurid period. The fifteenth-century writer Maulana Muhammad ibn Husam al-Din, recognized as Ibn Husam, composed the Khavarannama as a tribute to the esteemed poet Firdausi’s national Persian epic, the Shahnama. However, Ibn Husam’s narratives primarily focus on the Shi’i imam ‘Ali, who was the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. This particular folio illustrates a fictional encounter between the poet Firdausi and Ibn Husam, the creator of the Khavarannama.
The Divan (Collected Works) of Jami, dated 1492, features a manuscript that bears the signature of a member of the renowned al-Khwarazmi family of calligraphers, who were patrons of both the Qara Quyunlu and Aq Quyunlu rulers in the cities of Baghdad, Shiraz, and Tabriz during the fifteenth century. This collection of poetry, transcribed by ‘Abd al-Karim al-Khwarazmi, showcases the works of the celebrated contemporary poet Jami (d. 1492). The Aq Quyunlu rulers held Jami’s poetry in high regard, with the poet dedicating one of his compositions to Sultan Ya’qub and his brother Yusul of the Aq Quyunlu dynasty.
This artwork, Princely Couple depicting an embracing couple may have originally functioned as a template for wall decoration. The absence of any accompanying text prevents the identification of the individuals portrayed; however, they have been likened to the iconic lovers of Persian literature, such as Khusrau and Shirin, who are celebrated in Nizami’s Khamsa (Quintet). Garden Scene – Iran, likely Tabriz, Aq Quyunlu period (1396-1508), dated to 1430 AD.
The Ottoman Empire
From their beginnings as a small principality in northwestern Anatolia, the Ottomans (1299-1923 AD) created a powerful empire, eventually controlling most of the Mediterranean coastline. At its high point, the Ottoman empire comprised not only Anatolia, the Balkans, and the Caucasus, but also Syria, Iraq and Arabia, Egypt, and much of North Africa.
The Ottomans established capitals in Bursa and Edirne (both in modern Turkey), before Mehmed II (1444– 46, 1451-81 AD), known as Mehmed the Conqueror, seized the Byzantine capital Constantinople in 1453. The city, known today as Istanbul, became the center of their ever-expanding empire. An impressive transformation of the city took place during the reign of Sultan Suleiman “the Magnificent” (1520-66 AD), ushering in the golden age of Ottoman art and culture. Suleiman undertook a massive building campaign, constructing great mosques, with domes that rivaled the Byzantine Hagia Sophia, and renovating the Topkapı royal palace.
Under Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottomans centralized artistic production in a variety of imperial workshops. The designs produced in these ateliers were applied to works in many media-textiles, carpets, ceramics, and metalwork-creating an identifiable imperial style. Many of the objects on display here are the work of Suleiman’s court artists, as well as later generations of imperial craftsmen.
This album probably from Istanbul, Ottomon period, contains samples written by Shaikh Hamdullah in 1500 AD, the most famous Ottoman calligrapher The text comes from the Hadith, the compilation of the Prophet Muhammad’s words and deeds that is an important source for moral and legal guidance in the Islamic tradition.
Because of the primary importance of the written word of God (the Quran), Islamic cultures have long prized the arts of the book. Calligraphy has always occupied the highest status among the arts of Islam, and the associated arts of the book-manuscript texts, illuminations, paper marbling, illustrations (that often include figural images in secular works), binding, and beautiful albums-have been practiced by various Islamic cultures.
Calligraphy in ships, Turkey, Ottoman,1766-67 AD, were popular subjects for calligrams in the Ottoman world. The hull and deck are composed of the names of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, a Christian story that was reinterpreted in the sura 18 of the Quran (al-kahf, “The Cave”). The dedication, “Al-Sultan ibn al-Sultan Mustafa Khan ibn Sultan Ahamd Khan,” seen above the grilled windows of the stern and surmounted by the Sultan’s tughra (insignia), refers to Mustafa III, the twenty-sixth Ottoman sultan ( 1757-73 AD). The fusion of form and content of the inscriptions here render this calligram a potent talisman capable of protecting ships from sinking.
This reconstructed folio page, originally from Calligrapher ‘Umar Aqta’, present-day Uzbekistan, Samarqand, Timurid period (1370-1507) comes from one of the largest copies of the Quran ever produced. Each line of script, written in the muhaqqaq style, is over three feet long, and each page was originally over seven feet tall. ‘Muhaqqaq’ was an early term which captured care, clarity and meticulousness in calligraphy. It was associated with the making of manuscripts of the Qur’an – a sacred task and one which helped to give the new Islamic order both identity and coherence. This page probably comes from a gigantic Quran that the calligrapher ‘Umar Aqta’ wrote for the ruler Timur (Tamerlane, 1405). Apparently Timur was unimpressed after ‘Umar Aqta’ wrote a Quran so small that it could fit under a ring, so the calligrapher wrote another Quran so large it had to be brought to Timur on a cart.
Ivory from muslim Italy
In 965, an emirate was established in Sicily after a century-long contest for the island between Byzantine and Muslim forces. For the next one hundred years, this emirate flourished under the protection of two dynasties based in North Africa, the Aghlabids and the Fatimids. However, it is their successors, the Normans, to whom most of the material legacy of medieval Sicily is attributed. Situated between Byzantine and Fatimid territories, Norman kings in Sicily drew inspiration from both contexts in their art, culture, and bureaucracy. They employed Muslim artisans and exchanged embassies and gifts with the Fatimid court. Commercial networks connected Sicily to North Africa, a conduit for sub-Saharan ivory that was fashioned into luxury items for a European clientele.
Byzantine and Greko-Roman tradition
As Islamic power arose in the former Roman/Byzantine lands of Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, works of art produced under Islamic rule began to reflect the influence of shapes, motifs, and techniques drawn from late Roman, Byzantine, and Coptic traditions in a variety of media. The objects assembled here demonstrate the strong link between the art of the Late Antique and that of the early Islamic era.
Luster ceramics
Luster painting is a significant contribution of Islamic potters to the development of world ceramics, first appearing on Syrian and Egyptian glassware in the third century A.D. Potters in ninth- and tenth-century Iraq rediscovered this technique, painting with metallic oxides onto previously glazed and fired vessels. The objects were then re-fired in kilns with reduced oxygen atmospheres, causing the copper and silver to lose their oxygen content and creating a shiny veneer on the surface of the glaze. Egyptian potters under the Fatimids adopted the luster technique, adding more realistic depictions of animals and images of dancers and horsemen to the stylized motifs of earlier periods. From Egypt the luster technique traveled to Syria and to Iran, where it achieved new heights in the city of Kashan (in Iran). In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, it flourished in southern Spain and later in Italy.
Ottoman Court Carpet
This splendid carpet, with feathery leaves, stylized lotus flowers, and tightly curled cloud-band scrolls, displays characteristics associated with a group of carpets of debated provenance. While the wool and weaving methods of this group are akin to carpets woven in Egypt, their designs probably were produced in Istanbul. Documents reveal that on at least one occasion in 1585, the Ottoman sultan Murad III requested that a number of Cairene weavers, along with a quantity of Egyptian wool, be brought to the court in Istanbul. Such interactions may explain the unexpected combination of materials, technique, and design found in these carpets.
The world of Suleiman the Magnificent
The Ottoman Empire attained its peak in political and economic power during the rule of Sultan Suleiman I (A.D. 1520-66), recognized globally as “the Magnificent.” The artists at his court produced the ornate tugra (tughra), a seal or monogram that adorned all significant royal edicts. Throughout his reign, Ottoman artisans created an exceptional range of ceramics, some closely mimicking Chinese designs while others showcased remarkable originality. A few weapons linked to Suleiman’s court can be found outside of Turkey; notably, two are housed in this museum: a small sword attributed to the renowned sword smith Ahmed Tekelu, located in the introductory gallery, and a striking curved kılıc.
A residential reception chamber from Damascus, Syria, that’s considered one of the earliest surviving examples of its kind. The room’s large scale, refined decoration, and inscription on the walls suggest it was part of a wealthy family’s home. The room’s centerpiece is the ataba fountain, which is typical of courtyards in this style. This is of late Ottomon period 1707 AD.
Epilogue
This museum is vast, requiring at least a week to thoroughly explore its artifacts, photographs, and paintings. I spent two days there, yet I found myself rushing through the exhibits. I took photographs of the signage and plaques to examine them more closely at home. This article aims to assist visitors in preparing for their visit to the museum.
I extend my gratitude to America for providing an abundance of knowledge to millions of individuals around the globe.
Views: 0
