There has been a long list of Pharaohs in history of Egypt since 3000 BC till 51 BC until Roman Emperor Alexander the Great captured Egypt.
Menes (3100 BC), was the first pharaoh in Egypt while Cleopatra VII (beloved of Augustus Caesar) was last Pharaoh when Roman Augustus Caesar wiped out Egypt Empire. Mostly the Pharaohs succeeded the throne by heritage but there are few examples when militarily the throne was acquired. Some of the Pharaohs left their everlasting impressions for the work they left behind.
Here I mention some Pharaohs who we must know in order to understand the ancient pyramids and temples in Egypt.
It is not easy to remember the Egypt history as large number of dynasties and pharaoh ruled here. Here is a brief overview of kingdoms for a tourist to understand.
Old kingdom : 1st to 10th dynasty 3100BC-2025BC
Middle kingdom : 11-12th dynasty 2040BC-1782BC
New kingdom : 18th – 24th dynasty – 1550BC- 715BC
Pharaoh Djoser (2686 BC to 2648 BC) – Old Kingdom
Djoser is credited with construction of first pyramid on plateau of Sakkarah. This was stepped pyramid and was designed by Imhotep who was one of the wisest man of ancient times. He was a statesman, physician, architect and engineer. He took the wood, small limestone blocks and sand mud.
Burial chamber was inside in center of this pyramid. Imhotep designed the burial chamber (90 feet below) same as Djoser’s palace. The other surrounding rooms contained burial artifacts such as furniture, jewelry, food items which were used and favorite of the king. The court flanked by two rows of small buildings is called the court of chapels. North of this are two large temples dedicated to the North and South. The tiny figures we see in this below model are of artisans, priests, laborers. The size of them we can get idea of immensity of this structure.
This pyramid even stands today as monument of his genius.
Pharaoh Khufu (2589 – 2566 B.C) – Old Kingdom
Built the Great Step Pyramid that is known as the Great Pyramid of Giza. It is also known as the Pyramid of Khufu. Building took 20-year period and concluded in 2560 BC. This is one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was just 150 years after the first pyramid was commissioned by Djoser.
Pharaoh Khafra (2558 – 2532 B.C) – Old Kingdom
He was the son and successor of Khufu. Built the Second Pyramid at Giza and the Sphinx that guards it. There are six pyramids in the complex, three large and three smaller ones. Nearby, there’s the Sphinx and workers’ village as well as cemeteries. The entire site is also known as the Giza Necropolis.
With the introduction of Pharaoh Khufu (Pyramid of Giza, pyramid of his mother and 2 queens) and his son Pharaoh Khafre (Sphinx, Pyramid of Khafre) we go forward to understand Giza Necropolis (Giza Plateau). We also need to understand distinction between divine or cult temple, mortuary temple, valley of temples, funerary temple, tomb, mastabas and cemetery.
The entire purpose of Egyptian religion was to maintain “maat” (truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality and justice). The temples were made as a means to link public to God and sustain “maat” through rituals. It was responsibility of pharaoh to maintain “maat” in his realm of kingdom. These temples were called Divine or cult temples and pharaoh was thought and presented like messenger to God.
Later period Pharaoh erected their statues also inside the divine temples and these were called mortuary temples by Egyptologist. Actually Pharaoh did not differentiate between cult temples and mortuary temples as such. The worship of gods was present to some degree in mortuary temples also.
Egyptologist Stephen Quirke has said that “at all periods royal cult involves the gods, but equally… all cult of the gods involves the king”. The purpose of mortuary temple also might be to unite the king with the gods, elevating him to a divine status greater than that of ordinary kingship. Offerings were made in mortuary temples to sustain pharaoh life after death. The mortuary temples were constructed adjacent to pyramid in old and middle kingdom period while in valley of kings and queens during new kingdom. Valley temples were built for performing mummification process and purification of mummy.
Now let us understand difference between mastabas, tomb and pyramid.
In Giza plateau we see some mastabas. What are they meant for? Before pyramids were built in Egypt, the pharaohs and royalty were buried in massive structures called mastabas. It is a large rectangular structure that was used as a type of tomb, often for royalty, in pre dynastic and mostly for non royal nobilities burials in later periods. They had distinct sloping sides and were typically made of mud bricks or stones.
After pyramid was constructed for the first time by Djoser in old kingdom the kings were buried in basement of pyramid called tombs. The mummified body of pharaoh was laid in the tomb in basement of pyramid.
During New kingdom the tombs were constructed away from pyramid to save the valuables buried with body from robbers.
Amenhotep I (1525-1504 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was second pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. Both he and his mother were credited for opening a worker village at Set Ma’at “Servants in the Place of Truth” which is now known as Deir el-Medina. It is an ancient Egyptian workmen’s village which was home to the artisans who worked on the tombs in the Valley of the Kings during 1550–1080 BCE. Painters, carpenters, sculptors and architects were direct employees of king. They were not bound to any land. They were directed by king for work and had to go to places where the tombs or furniture were to be constructed. The most famous artists lived in Deir el-Medina. During his first year as a king, he constructed a temple dedicated to Aten (God Sun) at Karnak at the perimeters of the Temple of Amun (Chief of Egyptian Gods). He was first king to separate mortuary temple from the tomb probably to hide tomb valuables from robbers. Amenhotep I was heirless. He was succeeded by Thutmose I.
Thutmose I (1526-1513 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was third pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. His greatest projects were at the Temple of Karnak. Thutmose I was the first king to drastically enlarge the temple. He was the first king who definitely was buried in the Valley of the Kings. He was re-buried by his grandson in tomb of Hatshepsut who was daughter of Thutmose I. He was succeeded by his son Thutmose II, who in turn was succeeded by Thutmose II’s sister, Hatshepsut.
Thutmose II (1493 to 1479 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was fourth pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. He married his half sister Hatshepsut. His body was found in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and can be viewed today in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. He was succeeded by his sister (wife) Pharaoh Hatshepsut.
Pharaoh Hatshepsut (1498-1483 B.C) – New Kingdom
She was fifth pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. She was both wife and sister of Thutmose II and one of the most successful pharaohs. She reigned longer than any other women of the Egyptian dynasty. On death of her husband she was appointed as the ruler of Egypt.
The walls of her temple at Deir el-Bahri near Valley of Kings show the exotic tips of her famous trading expeditions in the land of Punt (a kingdom in ancient Egypt). She is credited with first in world to transplant foreign tree which she brought from Punt. As said pharaohs in middle kingdom period were also worshipped as God. This temple of Hatshepsut has her statue along with God Amun (Chief of Egyptian Gods). Many of her portraits were destroyed at the order of her stepson Thutmose III after her death.
Pharaoh Thutmose III (1479-1425 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was sixth pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. He is called the “Napoleon of Egypt”. He ruled the Egypt along with his step mother Hathepsut. He created the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. 17 campaigns were conducted by him. He transformed Egypt into an international superpower by creating an empire that stretched from the Asian regions of southern Syria and Canaan (Jordan) to the east, to Nubia (Sudan). Buried in the Valley of the Kings. His tomb was one of the most sophisticated tomb in Valley of Kings but brutally plundered by robbers seems with all hatred.
Pharaoh Amenhotep III (1390-1352 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was ninth pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. He inherited a wealthy, powerful state, in part due to the military success of his grandfather, Tuthmoses III. His reign was marked by unprecedented prosperity, political stability, and the creation of some of ancient Egypt’s most magnificent complexes, including an elaborate mortuary temple intended for rituals and offerings to honor the pharaoh in perpetuity. He was descended by his son Amenhotep IV.
It is worth mention about a Nobel Amenhotep, the son of Hapu during period when pharaoh Amenhotep III was ruling. He was designed as “Chief of Pharaoh and given the responsibility of military recruits, organizing labor across all of Egypt for the pharaoh’s projects. His most famous architectural creations was Pharaoh Amenhotep III’s mortuary temple in Thebes, near modern Luxor. Pharaoh Amenhotep III ordered a small funerary temple built right next to his own funerary complex, an honor which had never been bestowed in such a way before. After his death, Amenhotep, Son of Hapu’s reputation grew and he was esteemed as a philosopher for his teachings. He was also revered as a healer and eventually worshipped as a god of healing, like his predecessor Imhotep.
Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) (1379-1334 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was tenth pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. He built a new capital named as Akhetaten which now lies at modern Armarna. The area is not linked with any god. He then vowed never to leave the city’s boundaries and when he completed the nine years of reign he said that there was only one god and that was Aten (God Sun) and he was an intermediary between Aten and the people. Akhenaton reliefs are usually illustrated with long spindly arms and a feminine like figure. It has been suggested that perhaps this is evidence of disease, or kind of like a caricature of the king’s possibly slightly feminine appearance. Famous in history for religious revolution and start of new religion known as Atenist (worshipper of Sun). Egyptian believed in many gods, but when Akhenaten came into power he introduced the worship of one god (monotheism) that is the Sun God Aten. He built many massive complexes in honor of the Sun God Aten such as temple in Karnak in Luxor The style of art which flourished during this period was certainly different from the other Egyptian arts. He changed his name to Akhenaten after five years.
This fragment of carved relief shows the head and arms of the pharaoh Akhenaten, as he makes offering before God, the Aten (Sun). In his left hand is incense burner and in his right hand is sacred water vessel shaped like ankh-symbol of everlasting life.
Water vessels of this type were used for dedicating food offering to God.
Slightly curved surface tells us that the scene came from a large stone column in a public building at Akhenaten’s new capital Akhetaten. Today this site is located in Middle Egypt city called Tell el-Amarna.
Death of Akhenaten also was death of religion Atenist. Akhenaten’s mummy was removed from the royal tombs after Tutankhamun abandoned Akhetaten and returned to Thebes and reburied in most likely in Valley of the Kings.
Nefertiti – (1370 – 1330 BC)- New Kingdom
He was eleventh pharaoh of 18th Dynasty. Not to be confused with Nefertari (wife of Ramesses II). Nefertiti was wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) and were follower of monotheist, one God Aten (Sun). She was made famous by her bust (statue), now in Berlin’s Neues Museum. The bust is one of the most copied works of ancient Egypt.
Pharaoh Tutankhamun (1334-1325 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was the last ruler of the 18th Dynasty. Son of Akhenaten IV, Tutankhamun was the youngest pharaoh in the Egyptian history. He ascended to the throne at an age of nine and died at an age of 18. Tutankhamun was famous for his tomb in the Valley of the Kings, which was laden with many amazing treasures. He was most famous because his tomb was discovered completely intact and gave amazing insight into Egypt culture.
Also he is known to restore the old cult and religion of Egypt by abolishing his predecessor Akhenaten “monotheism”.
Pharaoh Ramesses II (1279-1212 B.C) – New Kingdom
He was the third ruler of the 19th Dynasty. He was also regarded as the most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian empire. He built many pretty temples and defeated the Hittites (Indo-European people settled around Turkey) at the battle of Kadesh in 1274 B.C. A peace of treaty was signed between Egypt and Hittites which is said to be oldest peace treaty. Among many other queens his chief queen Nefertari was beautiful. Carvings of this beautiful queen can be seen on the Ramesses II’s temple at Abu Simbel in modern city of Aswan. Ramesses II lived a long life, and died at an age of 92. His successors often referred him as the “Great Ancestor”. He had over 200 wives and concubines and 156 children.
This model is created at San Jose Egyptian Museum to give a glimpse of the grandeur of temple of Abu Simbel built by Pharaoh Ramesses II. In ancient time it was called as Ramesses Meryamum, the Temple of Ramesses, Beloved of Amum (Egyptian ram-headed god)”. Each statue of Ramesses II are towering 67 feet. On one side of colossal statues are images of Nile Gods. Inside temple there are 8 pillars supporting the first chamber and are carved to show pharaoh as Osiris (God of fertility, husband of Isis and father of Horus).
The interior of temple show the battles won. The temple was designed so that on day of birth day and coronation of Ramesses II in February and October the sun would directly shine at the temple entrance.
Nefertari (1290 – 1255 BC) – New Kingdom
She was the ruler of the 19th Dynasty. Not to be confused with queen Nefertiti. Nefertari was first wife of Ramesses II. She is one of the best known Egyptian queens, among such women as Cleopatra, Nefertiti, and Hatshepsut. She was a quiet force behind the throne, especially in foreign affairs. She was highly educated and able to both read and write hieroglyphs, a very rare skill at the time. She used these skills in her diplomatic work, corresponding with other prominent royals of the time. Her lavishly decorated tomb, QV66, is one of the largest and most spectacular in the Valley of the Queens. Ramesses II also constructed a temple for her at Abu Simbel next to his colossal monument there.
Nefertari appears as Ramesses II’s consort on many statues in both Luxor and Karnak. The greatest honor was bestowed on Nefertari however in Abu Simbel. Nefertari is depicted in statue form at the great temple, but the small temple is dedicated to Nefertari and the goddess Hathor (of the sky, of women, fertility and love). She committed suicide in grief over the loss of her daughter. The mummy discovered in the tomb back in 1904 are housed at the Egyptian museum in Turin, Italy.
Cleopatra VII (51 – 30 BC)- Hellenistic Egypt
She was last active ruler of Late Kingdom. Late Period of kingdom is period when Persians ruled in Egypt up to 332 BC. After Persians Greeks ruled and is called Hellenistic Egypt Period. After the death of Alexander, the great in 323 BC, in rivalry to take control of Egypt Ptolemy I Soter, most trusted general won. His and there after up to Ptolemy XV up to 30 BC, the Egyptian rule is known as Ptolemaic Egypt. In this period Greeks were given high posts in bureaucracy, army and Greek culture was heaped on Egyptian religious life. They exploited Egyptian resources, and wealth using their power. Native Egyptians maintained power over local and religious institutions, and only gradually accrued power in the bureaucracy, provided they Hellenized (turned to Greek culture).
To legitimize their rule Ptolemy declared himself Pharaoh and portrayed himself in public monuments of Egypt. But they rigorously maintained its Hellenistic character and traditions. Ptolemaic pharaohs queens were called Cleopatra. Cleopatra VII (Greek origin) was last pharaoh of Ptolemaic rule and committed suicide in 30 BC during Romans Egypt conquest. Cleopatra VII could speak multiple languages by adulthood and was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language.
Epilogue
There is a long lineage of pharaohs in history of ancient Egypt. As a tourist if you visit Egypt, we should know at least few pharaohs who had everlasting impression on Egyptian history and left some of the amazing works behind them in form of pyramids and temples. Amid 2000 types of Gods, mysteries of mummies, funerary systems all customs and social functions culminated by Pharaohs. It is interesting to compare Egyptian and Harappan civilization. Harappan was 20 times larger in area than combined Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilization. Harrapan town planning, sewage, waste management was incomparable and they used burnt bricks while other civilizations used sun dried mud bricks. Mesopotamian Maths and Science were more advanced than Egyptians. Recent studies it is found that Harappan civilization is about two to three thousand years older than Egyptian. Egyptians had advantage of better geography due to Nile that Mesopotamian. In all Indus civilization is the oldest. Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilization started around 4000 BC while Indus valley in 7000 BC.
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